Anatomy and Physiology (Chemistry) Flash Cards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms related to atoms, bonding, isotopes, pH, and macromolecules from the lecture notes.

Atom

The basic unit of matter that everything is composed of.

Protons

Positively charged subatomic particles located in the nucleus.

Neutrons

Neutral subatomic particles located in the nucleus.

Electrons

Negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus and participate in bonding.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom; unique to each element and defines the element.

Atomic Mass

Measured in Daltons/AMU; essentially protons plus neutrons (electrons not counted).

Isotopes

Atoms with an unusual number of neutrons compared to the typical element.

Ions

Atoms with an unusual number of electrons, resulting in a net charge.

Cations

Positive ions with more protons than electrons.

Anions

Negative ions with more electrons than protons.

Electron Configuration

Arrangement of electrons in energy levels and orbitals around the nucleus.

Energy Levels

The main regions around the nucleus where electrons are found

Orbitals

Subdivisions within energy levels (s, p, d, f) that hold electrons.

First Energy Level Capacity

1st level holds 2 electrons (s orbital).

Second Energy Level Capacity

2nd level holds 8 electrons (2 in s, 6 in p).

Third Energy Level Capacity

3rd level holds 18 electrons (s, p, d).

Fourth Energy Level Capacity

4th level holds up to 32 electrons (includes f orbitals).

Covalent Bond

Bond formed by sharing electrons to satisfy orbitals.

Polar Covalent Bond

Uneven sharing of electrons, creating partial charges.

Ionic Bond

Bond between a positively charged ion (cation) and a negatively charged ion (anion).

Hydrogen Bond

Bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (O or N), often involving water.

Hydrophilic

Molecules that are water-loving and form hydrogen bonds with water.

Hydrophobic

Molecules that are water-fearing and generally nonpolar (avoid water).

Nonpolar

Molecules with no significant partial charges; evenly shared electrons.

Polar

Molecules with uneven electron distribution and partial charges.

pH Scale

A scale from 1 to 14; 7 is neutral; acids donate protons, bases accept protons.

Acid

Substance that donates protons (H+ procedures).

Base

Substance that accepts protons.

Isomer

Molecules with the same formula but different connectivity.

Enantiomer

Molecules that have carbon with four different groups bond to it and have a mirror image. 

Phospholipid

Lipid with a phosphate group; major component of cell membranes.

Triglyceride

is a storage of lipid in animals

Cholesterol

Stored lipid; precursor for fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones.

Carbohydrates

Macromolecules that provide energy; include glucose and glycogen; form glycosidic bonds.

Glucose

A simple sugar used for energy; metabolized via glycolysis.

Glycolysis

breaks down glucose to produce energy.

Glycosidic Bond

Covalent bond between carbohydrate units; alpha vs beta linkages.

Alpha Linkage

Glycosidic bond oriented downward; digestible by humans. (covalent bond)

Beta Linkage

Glycosidic bond oriented upward; generally not digestible by humans.

Glycogen

• long chains of glucose ; these molecules are ring structures with OH groups. 

Amine Group

nitrogen-based molecules

Carbohydrate(Glucose)

I identify this structure

Phospholipid(Lipid)

I identify this structure

Amino Acid

I identify this structure

Phospholipids are composed of what two parts

Hydrophilic head and Hydrophobic tail

If the Tails in Phospholipids are Unsaturated they have what kind of bond and what atom is it

Unsaturated lipids have double bonds between carbons. 

What makes a lipid tail saturated?

Single bonds only with Hydrogen

Why do unsaturated fatty acid tails create movement?

They have kinks from double bonds

What type of bond connects two carbohydrates?

Glycosidic bond

Why can’t humans digest Beta glycosidic bonds?

Humans lack the enzymes to break them

What are proteins composed of?

Amino acids

How is a protein's structure related to its function?

the shape determines what the protein can do.

Name three functions of proteins in the body.

Structural support, enzymes, antibodies

What is unique about the R group in amino acids?

Determines amino acid properties (hydrophobic, hydrophilic, ionic, size)

What are the four levels of protein structure?

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

What is the primary structure of a protein?

Sequence of amino acids

What forms the secondary structure of a protein?

hydrogen bonding of other primary structures

What characterizes the tertiary structure of a protein?

3D folding due to ionic, hydrophobic, and covalent interactions

What is quaternary structure in proteins?

Interaction of two or more tertiary structures

Which interactions stabilize tertiary and quaternary structures?

Ionic, hydrophobic, and covalent interactions

What type of macromolecule are enzymes?

Proteins

What does an enzyme's active site usually contain?

A metal ion (e.g., Fe, Zn, Cu, Mg)

What is an anabolic reaction?

Building macromolecules (produces water)

What is a catabolic reaction?

Breaking down macromolecules (uses water)

What is Gibbs free energy (G)?

The energy throughout a reaction

What does Delta G indicate in a reaction?

Whether a reaction is favorable or not (spontaneous vs. nonspontaneous)

How do you calculate Delta G (Gibbs free energy)?

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (enthalpy minus temperature times entropy)

What is ATP composed of?

Adenine with 3 phosphates

What happens when the terminal phosphate of ATP is cleaved?

Energy is released

What is a gene?

A sequence of DNA that codes for a protein

What is gene expression?

The process where DNA is transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein.

What is a codon?

A set of 3 nucleotides coding for an amino acid

What nucleotides make up DNA

A, T, C, G (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine)

What is a nucleotide composed of?

Sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base

How is DNA transcribed into mRNA?

A → U, T → A, C → G, G → C (thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA)

What sugar does RNA use?

Ribose

Which base does RNA use instead of thymine?

Uracil

How many hydrogen bonds he base pair adenine-thymine (A-T) and guanine-cytosine (C-G) DNA?

A-T: 2, C-G: 3

What are DNA and histones arranged into?

Chromosomes

What percentage of the genome codes for genes?

2%

What is the difference between transcription and translation?

Transcription: DNA → mRNA, Translation: mRNA → Protein

What is DNA made of?

Nucleotides

What is mRNA made of?

Nucleotides

What is protein made of?

Amino acids

How many pairs of chromosomes are in the human genome?

23 pairs

How many copies of each chromosome do humans have?

2

Approximately how many genes are estimated in the human genome?

50,000

What are telomeres?

Tips of chromosomes with repeat sequences

What happens to telomeres over time?

They shorten and coding regions may be lost

what is the difference between deoxyribose and Ribosome

There is a extra single Oxygen in the Ribosome

What makes each cell type unique?

Its structure and the genes it expresses.

Do all cells have the same organelles?

Yes, but their structures differ to suit unique functions.

In the cell membrane, what do hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails do?

Hydrophilic heads face water; hydrophobic tails hide inside the bilayer.

What do channel proteins do?

Move substances with the concentration gradient, no ATP needed.

What do pump proteins do?

Move substances against the concentration gradient, require ATP.

What do adhesion proteins do?

Link cells together and form organ/tissue structure.

What do receptor proteins do?

Allow cells to communicate (immune & endocrine signaling).

What is cytosol?

Jelly-like fluid that fills the cell, suspending organelles.

What is cytoplasm?

Cytosol + all organelles except the nucleus.

How many chromosomes are in the human nucleus?

23 pairs (46 total).