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Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
2 types: Echoic (sounds) and Iconic (visual)
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory (declarative memory)
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits; automatically processed
Ex: tying shoe or riding bike
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mneumonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect (retrieval practice effect/test-enhanced learning)
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage.
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Ex: September 11th, Pearl Harbor
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
strengthened connections of neurons may be related to long-term memory formation.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect or Primacy recency
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
We don't remember the middle!
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
*Damage to the hippocampus
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory (FREUD), the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event.
Elizabeth Loftus
source amnesia (source misattribution)
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. Along with the misinformation effect is the source of many false memories.
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
Ex: your birdiest bird
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics
Ex: following a recipe when cooking, following a mathematical formula to solve a problem
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm; short-cut or rule of thumb
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Leads us to fear the wrong things...
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Aha!
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; and obstacle to problem solving
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representative heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it; we know something, but cannot pull it out of memory
Overgeneralization/overregularization
Children apply grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions
Ex: A 3 year old says "I goed to the store"
language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
general intelligence (g)
according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
grit
in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Ex: AP Psychology Exam
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; the capacity to learn
Ex: SAT test
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus a child who does as well as an average 8-year old is said to have a mental age of 8.
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
this intelligence test and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
Prestest...Test
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
Consistency
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Ex: End of Year Exam should cover all content of course...not just one chapter
predictive validity (criterion-related validity)
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.
construct validity
the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring
cohort
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (formerly known as mental retardation)
Down Syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
1. Linguistic/verbal
2. Logic/math
3. Visual/spatial
4. Music
5. Bodily-kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalist
9. Existentialist
triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions
Intellectual Disabilities from genetic defects
Down Syndrome, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Psychometricians
people who make tests
split-half reliability
A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.
![<p>defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.</p>](https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/3a81c573-4b8b-4796-9419-d6359a76ce1e.jpg)
