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Roles
Sets of expectations
Types: task, maintenance, and individuals
Task Roles
Roles that members assume to help accomplish the group’s mission
Maintenance Roles
Roles that influence a group’s social atmosphere
Nurture positive interpersonal relationships
Individual Roles
Roles characterized by behavior that calls attention to each contributions of group members
Sources of Roles
Norms and power
Norms
Rules that determine appropriate behavior in a group
Develop from structuration and early group behaviors
Power
The ability to influence or exert control over others
Five Bases
Legitimate
Referent
Expert
Reward
Coercive
Status and Power
High status depending on its perception within a culture
The least transferable trait across cultural barriers
Trust
The extent to which a person is confident in, and willing to act on the basis of, the words, actions, and decisions of another
Primary Tension
The social unease that accompanies getting acquainted
Secondary Tension
Conflict and stress that occur in groups as members vie for positions of leadership
Helps to establish group norms
Time Orientations
Flexible
a. set fewer deadlines
b. more autonomy for group members
Separation
a. separate physically when working on a task
Concurrency
a. more likely to multitask
b. look for ways to combine projects and activities
Group Climate
The emotional environment of a group, which affects and is affected by interaction among members
Types: defensive and supportive
a. Defensive climates are counterproductive
b. Supportive climates allow members to focus on group tasks
Evaluative vs Descriptive
Evaluation = “you“ language; provokes defensiveness
Description = “i“ language; describes the speaker’s thoughts about the person or idea and leads to more trust
Control vs Problem Orientation
Communicative behavior that aims to control can make group members defensive
Ex: “I know what’s good for you“
Strategy vs Spontaneous
Strategy = staged, scripted communication
a. Suggests manipulation
Spontaneous = creates a more supportive environment
a. Someone without a hidden agenda
b. Responds immediately and honestly
Neutrality vs empathy
Neutrality = indifference; arouses defensiveness in others
Empathy = conveyed nonverbally, active listening, good eye contact, involvement and concern for group
Superiority vs Equality
Superiority = seen as obnoxious and makes others defensive
Equality = implies mutual trust and respect
Certainty vs Provisionalism
Certainty = put others on the defense, others want to prove them wrong (counterproductive)
Provisionalism = those who appear flexible and committed to solving problems
Disconfirming Responses
Causes another person to value himself or herself less
Ex: impervious, interrupting, irrelevant, tangential, impersonal, incoherent, and incongruous responses
Confirming Responses
Causes a person to value himself or herself more
Ex: direct acknowledgement, agreement about content, supportive response, clarifying response, and expression of positive feeling
Group Cohesiveness
The degree of attraction members feel toward one another and the group
Builds up group productivity
Exceptions: high social cohesion and team performance falls off when cohesion is too high
Building of a Cohesive Team
Building groups based on similarity in interpersonal attraction leads to strong cohesiveness but mediocrity as a task group
A blend of similarity would be best
Benefits of a Cohesive Team
If people perceive benefits from one group over another, they will get more attracted to that group
Productivity and Climate
Positive group climate is essential for reaching maximum group potential
To build climate, learn to communicate, and avoid defensive, disconfirming behavior
Variables that affect are
Defensive behavior
Confirming and disconfirming responses
Group cohesiveness
Group size
Verbal Communication
Communication Barriers:
Bypassing
Allness
Fact-inference confusion
Bypassing
Occurs when two people interpret the same word differently
Allness
A simple but untrue generalization
Fact-interference Confusion
Reaching a conclusion as if something was a fact when in reality, it was based on an inference
Listening Styles
A preferred way of making sense out of spoken messages heard
Four Styles: relational, analytical, critical, and task
Relational Listening Style
Other-oriented; focused on the stories others tell
Analytical Listening Style
Prefer to focus on facts; more likely to assume task-oriented roles
Critical Listening Style
Evaluate info and able to spot inconsistencies; skilled at catching errors
Task Listening Style
Helps keep group focused on the agenda
Barriers to Effective Listening
Prejudging the communication or the communicator
Rehearsing a response
Active Listening
Stop
Look
Listen
Ask questions
Paraphrase feelings
Nonverbal Communication
Communication behavior that does not rely on written or spoken words
Important; believed over verbal if they contradict, posture, movement, gestures, emblems(cues that take the place of spoken words) and regulators(controls the flow of communication), eye contact, facial expressions (6 primary emotions), vocal cues
Functions of Eye Contact
Cognitive = indicates thought process
Monitoring = how you seek feedback
Regulatory = regulates the back-and-forth flow of communication
Expressive = area around eyes that provide clues regarding feelings
Facial Expressions - 6 Primary Emotions
Happy
Anger
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust
Fear
Vocal Cues
Paralanguage = vocal cues such as pitch, volume, speaking rate, and voice quality that provide information about the meaning of a message
Can make inferences on a person’s feelings, competence, and personality
Can contradict verbal content
Seating Arrangements
Small-group Ecology = the consistent way that people arrange themselves physically in small groups
Important where you sit bc you can meet future leaders; determines the amount of eye contact to make or avoid
Personal Space
Proxemics = the study of how close to or far away from other people and objects we choose to be
Hall’s four spatial zones, interpreting nonverbal
Hall’s Four Zones of Space
Intimate
Personal
Social
Public
Perception Checking
The skill of asking someone whether your interpretation of his or her unspoken message is accurate
Three Steps:
a. Observe nonverbal cues
b. Mentally draw a conclusion
c. Ask the other person if your inference was accurate
Conflict
Defined by William Wilmot and Joyce Hockner
Causes of Conflict
Perception, personality, knowledge, culture, power/status, procedural differences, perceived resource inequity
Misconceptions About Conflict
Conflict should be avoided at all costs
All conflict occurs due to lack of understanding
All conflict can be resolved
Conflict Types
Pseudo
Simple
Ego
Pseudo Conflict
Occurs when individuals disagree because of poor communication
Simple Conflict
Disagreement over a course of actions or idea resulting in task or process conflict
Ego Conflict
Occurs when individuals become defensive about their positions because they think they’re being personally attacked
Conflict Management
Avoidance, accommodate, competition, compromise, collaboration
Avoidance
Conflict management style that involves ignoring disagreements in an effort to sidestep conflict
Accommodation
Conflict management style that involves giving into the demands of others
Can lead to bad decisions
Lose-win approach
Competition
Conflict management style that stresses winning at the expense of others involved
Can lead to effective collaboration
Compromise
Conflict management style that attempts to find the middle ground in the conflict
Can result in dissatisfaction among group members
Collaboration
To use positive communication strategies in conflict management in an attempt to achieve a positive solution for all involvement
Has long-term results
Disadvantage = time, effort, and skill
Advantage = better solutions and satisfaction
Group Think
The illusion of agreement exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, and evaluating ideas
Symptoms, suggestions to reduce, how to deal with difficult group members
Symptoms of Groupthink
Members apply pressure on those who don’t support
Members believe their group can do no wrong
Critical thinking is not encouraged or rewarded
Suggestions to Reduce Groupthink
Encourage critical thinking; be sensitive to status differences; invites someone outside of the group to evaluate decision making
Conflict Management Through Consensus
Occurs when all group members support and are committed to a decision
Listen and honest interaction
Leadership
Behavior or communication that influences, guides, directs, or controls a group
Trait Perspective
A view of leadership as the personal attributes or qualities that leaders possess
Functional Perspective
A view of leadership that assumes all group members can initiate leadership behaviors
Types: task and process
Task Leadership
Aims to accomplish a group goal
Initiating, coordinating, summarizing, and elaborating
Process Leadership
Help maintain satisfactory group climate
Releasing tension, gatekeeping, encouraging, mediating
Situational Perspective
Views leadership as the interaction of group needs and goals, leadership style, and the situation
Leadership Style
Authoritarian
Democratic
Laissez-faire
Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model
Telling, selling, participating, and delegating
Shared Leadership
Occurs when two or more individuals within a team share leadership
Groups that have this experience less conflict, greater consensus, and higher trust and cohesion
Transformational Leadership
Leadership that aims to change an organization by realigning its culture around a new vision
Four types:
a. idealized leadership
b. inspirational motivation
c. intellectual stimulation
d. individual consideration
Relies on three critical skills:
a. building shared vision
b. surfacing and challenging mental models
c. engaging in systems thinking
Emergent Leadership
Occurs through process of elimination
Leaders emerge through “methods of residues“
Servant Leadership
Opposite of authoritarian leadership
Skills: listening, other-oriented, seek consensus, nurture community