SOC150

Research Methods (Methodology)

• A systematic process of inquiry applied to learning about the social world

• The goal of research methods is to construct a defensible version of reality.

What is science?

A way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths.

What are the twin pillars of science?

Logic and Observation

Why is the scientific method central to making the gathering of empirical evidence systematic?

• establishes parameters or specific guidelines that help ensure that the findings are objective and accurate

• provides boundaries that focus a study and organize its results

• offers sociologists a shared basis for discussion and analysis

What does sociological research aim to do?

Find patterns of regularity in social life

What is the primary purpose of peer review?

To ensure research meets professional field standards and expectations

What does data collection methods do?

Designed to detect these social regularities

What are data analysis techniques used for?

Used to intepret data, and theory is used to help explain them

Science and the Research Process

• Specify the research question (example?)

• Review the scientific literature;

  • “Knowledge is cumulative” (meaning?)

• Propose a theory/state hypotheses (example?)

  • Interrelated ideas that provide a logical explanation of empirical realities.

• Select a research design (what are examples?)

  • A word about replication. (why do it?)

• Collect the data (cases, sample, population)

• Analyze the data (how?)

• Draw inferences/conclusions (generalization?)

• Disseminate results (peer review/public sociology)

Quantitative methods

result in data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers (aggregate, compare, summarize data).

• Less depth, more breadth—focus on a larger number of cases.

• Survey research- most common quantitative method in sociology.

Qualitative methods

are ways of collecting data that yield results such as words or text (e.g., in-depth interviews).

• Gain in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases

• Potential for greater richness in meaning than quantified data

What motivates basic research?

Curiosity about a topic, learning more about it, testing a theory, or solving an intellectual puzzle.

What is applied research?

Research conducted for a purpose beyond a researcher's personal interest, often to solve problems or improve living conditions.

What is evaluation research?

A type of applied research used to test the effectiveness of a social policy or program.

What is a variable?

A characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values.

What is an independent variable?

A variable that causes another variable to change.

What is a dependent variable?

A variable that is affected by or "depends" on an independent variable.

What is a relational statement?

A statement connecting two or more variables, where knowing the value of one provides information about the other.

What is a probabilistic relationship?

A relationship where two variables tend to change together with some degree of regularity.

What are the criteria for causation?

• Relationship/correlation between variables.

• Independent variable occurs before the dependent variable.

• No other variable explains the relationship.

What is selective observation?

• Focusing only on social patterns you've experienced or wish to find, leading to confirmation bias

• cherry-picked data to confirm the pattern one wants to find

What is overgeneralization?

Assuming broad social patterns based on limited observations.

Folk beliefs

“common sense” views, like having an assumption of what families in the 50s were like

Informal Observation

not deliberate or formal with a systematic process, therefore can be false

Tradition

what we’ve always known to be true

Authority

a socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our beliefs about what is true and what is not true

Social phenomena

people’s thoughts and behaviors as individuals and groups acting within societies

Reference group theory

describes how people judge themselves according to the social groups they relate to or aspire to join

Emotional labor

describes employees are trained to behave a certain way to convey their professionalism

Stress and coping theory

describes how negative experiences (such as discrimination) and social and personal coping resources interact and shape people’s healthy outcomes

Laws

• different from theories

• consistently observed patterns relating to specific phenomena

• Laws are typically not seen in sociology as humans and groups don’t display such deterministic tendencies, observations are based on what people are likely to do, rather than what they will do

Research based on the scientific method is supposed to be:

• logical

• confirmable

• replicable

• scrutinizable

Ontology

refers to one’s perspective, or philosophical inquiry on the nature of reality

Epistemology

deals with questions of how we know what is, or philosophical inquiry relating to the nature and scope of knowledge

Sample

The subset of the larger population that the researcher has collected data from, and that represent the target population within the study.

Cases

Members of the sample that the researcher has gathered data on, such as the individual interviewees or organizations being studied

Target population/population of interest

The larger group (of people, organizations, objects, etc.) that a researcher is interested in learning about and that their research question applies to

Contingent faculty

part-time and full-time faculty appointed off the tenure track, approximately 69% of the academic labor force in the US in 2019

Adjunct faculty

part-time instructors or lecturers that do not have long-term contracts with the university, who tend to suffer from low wages and job insecurity

What is market research?

The use of various research methods to guide companies in making decisions about sales and performance improvement.

Why do companies conduct market research?

To understand customer preferences, analyze competitors, and assess market trends before launching products or services.

What research methods do sociologists use in market research?

Surveys, interviews, focus groups, ethnography, and observational studies.

What is user experience (UX) research?

Research focused on understanding the perspectives and behaviors of end users to improve product or service design.

What is "thick data"?

Rich, nuanced qualitative data gathered through ethnographic research to help companies better understand complex problems.

What roles can sociologists play in UX research?

In-depth interviewers, ethnographers, survey researchers, and experimental researchers.

Why is there growing demand for data scientists in the private sector?

The need to analyze large amounts of unstructured big data using advanced quantitative methods.

What educational background is beneficial for market research careers?

Undergraduate or graduate studies in sociology, data science, or related fields, often supplemented by internships.

What is the role of sociologists in influencing public policy?

Sociologists impact public policy by advising policymakers, researching community needs, and assessing the effectiveness of social programs and policies.

What is social policy?

A type of public policy focused on improving human well-being, such as healthcare, education, and labor regulations.

How do sociologists influence policy?

Sociologists influence policy by serving as advisors, drafting policy briefs, conducting evaluation research, and working with governmental or nonprofit agencies.

What is evaluation research?

The analysis of the real-world consequences of social programs or policies, used to measure their success or to diagnose social problems.

What is a needs assessment in program evaluation?

It is a systematic process to determine the assistance required by communities or individuals based on their current needs compared to an ideal standard.

What is an outcomes assessment?

It measures whether a program has achieved its intended results by evaluating inputs, outputs, and observed changes (outcomes) from the program.

What are some common government agencies hiring sociologists for policy work?

U.S. Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Housing and Urban Development, and Congressional Research Service.

What skills are valuable for sociologists working in policy research?

Strong statistical and quantitative analysis skills, knowledge of social problems, and familiarity with research methods like randomized controlled trials.

What is the primary function of nonprofit organizations?

Nonprofits address social issues and work for a social purpose rather than making profits for owners or investors.

What role do sociologists play in nonprofit organizations?

Sociologists conduct research, evaluate programs, gather data, and advocate for social change, influencing public policy and supporting the organization’s mission.

What is the difference between think tanks and advocacy groups?

Think tanks focus on researching specific topics, while advocacy groups use research to support a political agenda and influence policy.

How do sociologists contribute to think tanks?

Sociologists in think tanks conduct research, analyze data, and provide policy recommendations, often influencing government decisions.

What are some common tasks for sociologists working in nonprofit organizations?

Program evaluation, human rights research, public opinion polling, survey design, and grant writing.

What is a key example of a well-known nonprofit research organization?

Pew Research Center, which conducts surveys and provides nonpartisan research on public opinion and social trends.

What types of nonprofits hire sociologists for research?

Charities, NGOs, advocacy groups, think tanks, and organizations focusing on human rights, health care, education, and social services.

How do think tanks influence policy?

Think tanks produce research that shapes discussions, advises policymakers, and testifies before legislative bodies.

What is the distinction between “nonprofit” and “not-for-profit” organizations?

Nonprofits often have tax-exempt status, while not-for-profits may not, but both are dedicated to social goals rather than financial gain.

What is the critique of nonprofit organizations in terms of social change?

Some argue that nonprofits may perpetuate inequality or co-opt social movements, preventing substantial change by maintaining the status quo.

What is clinical sociology?

Clinical sociology applies sociological knowledge to improve people's quality of life, often focusing on social issues such as poverty and community health.

What was the significance of Jane Addams' work at Hull House?

Jane Addams' work inspired a movement to use social scientific insights to address poverty and health issues, leading to the establishment of clinical sociology.

What are social determinants of health?

Social determinants of health are social and environmental factors that influence individuals' health and well-being, such as social interactions and living conditions.

How does public health research relate to sociology?

Public health research, which focuses on preventing disease and promoting health, often incorporates sociological knowledge, particularly about the social determinants of health.

What is the role of implementation research in public health?

Implementation research focuses on applying scientific knowledge, such as medical interventions, in real-world settings and understanding how various groups contribute to success.

What clinical roles can sociology graduates pursue?

Sociology graduates can work as counselors, therapists, group facilitators, educators, mitigation experts, mediators, and clinical coordinators, among other roles.

How do clinical sociologists contribute to mental health care?

Clinical sociologists apply their understanding of the social causes and effects of mental illness to help individuals and support groups, and may specialize in sociotherapy.

What is sociotherapy?

Sociotherapy is a sociologically informed approach to therapy that emphasizes the social context in which people's problems emerge.

How do sociologists in public health use research methods?

Sociologists in public health use survey data, archival data, and quantitative methods to analyze health trends, design programs, and influence policy.

What role do sociology graduates play in healthcare companies like UnitedHealth Group?

Sociology graduates may work as clinical coordinators, using their research and knowledge of social issues to contribute to healthcare management.

What is public sociology?

Public sociology is an effort to move sociological knowledge out of universities and into broader debates on policy and politics.

What debate surrounds public sociology?

The debate centers on whether public sociology should focus on advocating for specific social positions or remain scientifically rigorous in understanding social life.

Who is Michael Burawoy, and what did he advocate for?

Michael Burawoy was the president of the American Sociological Association who advocated for public sociology to increase the influence of sociologists in policy discussions.

What is the critique of sociology’s influence compared to economics in policy?

Economists have more influence in policy circles due to their focus on quantitative data, while sociologists, often associated with qualitative research, have less political clout.

What is action research?

Action research involves solving social problems by not only measuring and explaining them but also implementing specific solutions to improve conditions in communities.

What is community-engaged research?

Community-engaged research involves community members as active participants in the research process, not just passive subjects, often focusing on addressing local issues.

How does participatory action research work?

In participatory action research, sociologists collaborate with community members to design and implement research projects that aim to address social issues.

What role did W. E. B. Du Bois play in sociology and activism?

Du Bois was a pioneering African American sociologist who balanced academic work with activism, cofounding the NAACP and conducting influential studies on racial issues.

How did Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. use sociology in his activism?

King, a sociology major, drew on sociological ideas to inform his advocacy for civil rights, influenced by sociologists like W. E. B. Du Bois.

What skills can sociologists bring to activism?

Sociologists can use research methods like surveys, interviews, and content analysis to organize people, advocate for causes, and inform social change efforts.

What skills does sociology teach that are valuable in various professions?

Critical thinking, problem-solving, adaptability, and methods of data gathering and presentation.

What is critical thinking in the context of sociology?

Evaluating assumptions, actions, and values, and identifying strengths and weaknesses in arguments.

How does sociology help in problem-solving?

Sociology helps identify social problems and understand the dynamics of social interactions.

Why is adaptability important in sociology and the workplace?

Sociology promotes self-motivated learning and adaptability, which are crucial in dynamic environments and research projects.

How do sociology skills apply to journalism and criminal justice professions?

Sociological methods like interviews, observation, and statistical analysis are used in both fields to gather and assess information.

How can sociology help you be a smarter consumer?

Sociology teaches you to evaluate research methods used in advertisements, polls, and studies, helping you discern the quality of claims.

What is sociological imagination, and how does it help you understand your place in the world?

Sociological imagination connects personal stories with societal context, helping you understand how social forces shape individual experiences.

What is the basic definition of a theory according to the textbook?

A theory is a systematic explanation of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon.

How do theories relate to empirical observations in sociology?

Theories provide meaning to observations, and observations validate or refine existing theories or help develop new ones.

What is the difference between theory generation and theory testing in scientific research?

Theory generation involves developing abstract concepts and relationships, while theory testing involves observing reality to see if the concepts reflect it.

What is the relationship between smaller and larger theories in sociology?

Smaller theories can be part of a larger theory, where they explain specific aspects of a broader phenomenon.

What is a theoretical model in sociology?

A theoretical model is a simplified representation of a phenomenon, reducing complexity to focus on key aspects, allowing for better understanding and prediction of outcomes.

How do theories evolve over time in sociology?

Theories evolve as data accumulates, challenging or extending the initial ideas, which leads to refinements and adjustments.

What are the three levels of analysis in sociological research?

Micro, Meso, Macro.

What is the unit of analysis at the micro level?

The unit of analysis at the micro level is often the individual, but it can also be dyads or specific interactions.