ideology

what is a definition of idealogy

ideology is a worldview or a set of ideas and values - in other words, a belief system.

However, the term is very widely used in sociology and has taken on a number of r____ m_____. These often include n____ a___ such as the following:

• D____, f___ or m____ ideas about the world, or a p____, o___-s____ or b____ v___ of r____.

• Ideas that c___ the interests of a particular group, or that l___ (j____) their p____

• Ideas that prevent c___ by m____ people about the r____ of the s____ they are in or about their own true i____ or p___.

• A self-sustaining belief system that is i____ and closed to c___

Therefore, very often when someone uses the term ideology to describe a belief system, it means they regard it as f___ and/or m___ wrong

However, the term is very widely used in sociology and has taken on a number of related meanings. These often include negative aspects such as the following:

• Distorted, false or mistaken ideas about the world, or a partial, one-sided or biased view of reality.

• Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group, or that legitimate (justify) their privileges

• Ideas that prevent change by misleading people about the reality of the situation they are in or about their own true interests or position.

• A self-sustaining belief system that is irrational and closed to criticism

Therefore, very often when someone uses the term ideology to describe a belief system, it means they regard it as factually and/or morally wrong

Marxism and ideology

Marxism sees society as divided into two o____ classes

1. a minority c___ r___ c___ who own the means of p___ and c___ the s___,

2. majority w____ c___ who are p___ and therefore forced to sell their l__ to the c___

• The c___ class take a____ of this, e____ the workers' labour to p___ profit.

• It is therefore in the workers' interests to o___ c___ by means of a s____ r___ and replace it with a c____ c_____ s____ in which the means of production are c____, not p____, owned and used to benefit s___ as a whole

Marxism and ideology

Marxism sees society as divided into two opposed classes

1. a minority capitalist ruling class who own the means of production and control the state,

2. majority working class who are propertyless and therefore forced to sell their labour to the capitalists.

• The capitalist class take advantage of this, exploiting the workers' labour to produce profit.

• It is therefore in the workers' interests to overthrow capitalism by means of a socialist revolution and replace it with a classless communist society in which the means of production are collectively, not privately, owned and used to benefit society as a whole

Marxism and ideology

• what must happen for this revolution to occur?

• However, the ruling class control not only the means of material production (factories, land etc); they also control the means of production of what?

• These produce r___-c___ i___ - ideas that l____ or j___ the s___ q___ (the existing social set-up).

Marxism and ideology

• For this revolution to occur, the working class must first become conscious of their true position as exploited 'wage slaves' - they must develop class consciousness

• However, the ruling class control not only the means of material production (factories, land etc); they also control the means of production of ideas, through institutions such as education, the mass media and religion

• These produce ruling-class ideology - ideas that legitimate or justify the status quo (the existing social set-up).

Marxism and ideology

Ruling-class ideology includes ideas and beliefs such as:

•  That equality will never work because it goes against 'h_____ n____'

• V____ b____ ideas about p_____, such as what B____ and G____ (1976) call 'the p___ are d____' theory of m___: everyone has an e ___ chance in life, so the poor must be poor because they are s___ or l___.

• Racist ideas about the what? , which d___ Black and White workers and make them easier to r___

Marxism and ideology

Ruling-class ideology includes ideas and beliefs such as:

•  That equality will never work because it goes against 'human nature'

• Victim blaming ideas about poverty, such as what Bowles and Gintis (1976) call 'the poor are dumb' theory of meritocracy: everyone has an equal chance in life, so the poor must be poor because they are stupid or lazy.

• Racist ideas about the inferiority of minority ethnic groups, which divide Black and White workers and make them easier to rule.

Marxism and ideology

• Thus the dominant ideas are the i___ of the r___ c___ and they f___ to prevent change by creating a f___ c___ among the workers.

• However, despite these ideological barriers, Marx believes what?

Marxism and ideology

• Thus the dominant ideas are the ideas of the ruling class and they function to prevent change by creating a false consciousness among the workers.

• However, despite these ideological barriers, Marx believes that ultimately the working class will develop a true class consciousness and unite to overthrow capitalism.

Marxism and ideology - Hegemony and revolution

• This idea is developed further by G___ (1971).

• Gramsci refers to the ruling class' i____ d____ of society as hegemony.

• what dies hegemony mean ?

• in Gramsci’s view, the ruling class maintains power by how?

• however, He argues that the working class can develop ideas that c____ ruling-class hegemony

• This is because in capitalist society, workers have a dual consciousness - explain this.

• It is therefore possible for the working class to develop c____ c____ and o____ c____.

• In Gramsci's view, this requires a p____ p___ of ‘'o____ i___' - that is, workers who through their a___-c___ s___ have developed a c___ c___.

Marxism and ideology - Hegemony and revolution

• This idea is developed further by Gramsci (1971).

• Gramsci refers to the ruling class' ideological domination of society as hegemony.

• Hegemony means the dominance or leadership of one group over others, not just through force, but through control of ideas and beliefs.

• in Gramsci’s view, the ruling class maintains power by making its ideas seem like “common sense”

• however, He argues that the working class can develop ideas that challenge ruling-class hegemony

• This is because in capitalist society, workers have a dual consciousness - a mixture of ruling-class ideology and ideas they develop from their own direct experience of exploitation and their struggles against it.

• It is therefore possible for the working class to develop class consciousness and overthrow capitalism.

• In Gramsci's view, this requires a political party of ‘'organic intellectuals' - that is, workers who through their anti-capitalist struggles have developed a class consciousness.

Marxism and ideology - Hegemony and revolution

• However, some critics argue that it is not the e_____ of a d___ ideology that keeps the workers in l___ and prevents attempts to o____ c___.

• For example, A____ et al (2015) argue that it is e_____ f____ such as the f____ of u___ that keep workers from r___.

Marxism and ideology - Hegemony and revolution

• However, some critics argue that it is not the existence of a dominant ideology that keeps the workers in line and prevents attempts to overthrow capitalism.

• For example, Abercrombie et al (2015) argue that it is economic factors suckh as the fear of unemployment that keep workers from rebelling.

The ideology of nationalism

Nationalism is an important p_____ i___ that has had a major impact on the world over the last ___ years.

what are Nationalism ideas/claims ?

• Nations are real, distinctive communities each with its own unique characteristics and a long, shared history.

• Every nation should be self-governing.

• National loyalty and identity should come before all others, such as tribe, class or religion.

The ideology of nationalism

Nationalism is an important political ideology that has had a major impact on the world over the last 200 years.

Nationalism claims that:

• Nations are real, distinctive communities each with its own unique characteristics and a long, shared history.

• Every nation should be self-governing.

• National loyalty and identity should come before all others, such as tribe, class or religion.

The ideology of nationalism

• However, what does B____ A_____ (2006) argue about a nation? 

• Although we i____ with it, we will never know what?

• This i____ c___ can bind millions of strangers together and create a sense of common purpose.

The ideology of nationalism

• However, Benedict Anderson (2006) argues that a nation is only an 'imagined community', not a real one.

• Although we identify with it, we will never know most of its other members.

• This imagined community can bind millions of strangers together and create a sense of common purpose.

The ideology of nationalism - Marxism: nationalism as false consciousness

• Marx was an internationalist - what does this mean?

• His Communist Manifest  (1848) ends with 'W___ of all c___, u___. You have nothing to l____ but your c____. You have  w____ to w___.”

• In the Marxist view, nationalism is a form of what? that helps to prevent the overthrow of capitalism by doing what?

• This is because nationalism encourages workers to believe what?

• This has enabled the ruling class of each capitalist country to persuade the working class to fight w____ on their b___.

The ideology of nationalism - Marxism: nationalism as false consciousness

• Marx was an internationalist. ( he believed workers from all countries should unite and see themselves as part of one global working class )

• His Communist Manifest  (1848) ends with 'Workers of all countries, unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains. You have  world to win.”

• In the Marxist view, nationalism is a form of false class consciousness that helps to prevent the overthrow of capitalism by dividing the international working class 

• This is because nationalism encourages workers to believe they have more in common with the capitalists of their own country than with workers of other countries. e,g beefing with their workers from other countries rather then beefing the capitalists taking advantage of them 

• This has enabled the ruling class of each capitalist country to persuade the working class to fight wars on their behalf.

The ideology of nationalism - Functionalism: nationalism as civil religion

• Functionalists see nationalism as what?

• Like religion, it i____ individuals into l____ s___ and p____ units by making them feel part of something g___ than themselves.

• In m___ s___ societies, people may be unwilling to believe in s___ b___ but may be w___ to see themselves as part of a nation.

• why is religion is likely to be a source of division?

• By contrast, nationalism functions as a c____ r___ that unites everyone into a s____ n____ c___, regardless of differences such as religion or class.

The ideology of nationalism - Functionalism: nationalism as civil religion

• Functionalists see nationalism as a secular civil religion.

• Like religion, it integrates individuals into larger social and political units by making them feel part of something greater than themselves.

• In modern secular societies, people may be unwilling to believe in supernatural beings but may be willing to see themselves as part of a nation.

• Modern societies also often contain many different faiths, so religion is likely to be a source of division.

• By contrast, nationalism functions as a civil religion that unites everyone into a single national community, regardless of differences such as religion or class.

The ideology of nationalism - Functionalism: nationalism as civil religion

For functionalists, what are 2 ways  education plays an important part in creating social solidarity by :

The ideology of nationalism - Functionalism: nationalism as civil religion

For functionalists, education plays an important part in creating social solidarity by :

• collective rituals involving nationalist symbols such as the flag and national anthem,

• learning the nation's history (which may be more myth than fact).

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• G____ (1994; 2006) also sees nationalism as false consciousness: what claim is untrue?

• Instead, in G___ view, nationalism is a very modern phenomenon. - what does this mean?

• Pre-industrial societies were held together not by nationalism, but how

• Modern society is very different. I____ creates l___-scale, i____ societies with a c___ d______ of labour, administered by vast b____, and where all citizens are of r____ e___ status (for example, all are equal before the law).

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• Gellner (1994; 2006) also sees nationalism as false consciousness: its claim that nations have always existed naturally and forever, is untrue.

• Instead, in Gellner's view, nationalism is a very modern phenomenon. ( nation’s developed because of industrialisation and modern society)

• Pre-industrial societies were held together not by nationalism, but by face-to-face relationships in small-scale communities with a fixed hierarchy of ascribed statuses.

• Modern society is very different. Industrialisation creates large-scale, impersonal societies with a complex division of labour, administered by vast bureaucracies, and where all citizens are of relatively equal status (for example, all are equal before the law).

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• Modern states therefore need some means of e__ c____ between strangers to take place, especially in the economy.

• This is what nationalism makes possible, by using a mass state education system to impose a what? on every member of society.

• Similarly, nationalism regards all citizens as e___ and this makes e___ and s____ c____ between them easier.

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• Modern states therefore need some means of enabling communication between strangers to take place, especially in the economy.

• This is what nationalism makes possible, by using a mass state education system to impose a single, standard, national culture and language on every member of society.

• Similarly, nationalism regards all citizens as equal and this makes economic and social cooperation between them easier.

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• Gellner also notes that elites use n____ as an i____ to motivate the p___ to endure the h_ and s___ that accompany the first phase of industrialisation, thereby enabling a state to m__.

Gellner: nationalism and modernity

• Gellner also notes that elites use nationalism as an ideology to motivate the population to endure the hardships and suffering that accompany the first phase of industrialisation, thereby enabling a state to modernise.

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

Much of K___ M____ work on ideology was done between what time period - a time of what ?

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

Much of Karl Mannheim's work on ideology was done between the two World Wars (1918-39) - a time of intense political and social conflict - and this undoubtedly influenced his views.

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

• Mannheim (1929; 2015) sees all belief systems as a o___-s___ w_____

• Their one-sidedness results from being the viewpoint of one particular group or class and its interests.

This leads him to distinguish between two broad types of belief system or worldview:

1. i_____ t____ j____ keeping things as they are.

• It reflects the position and interests of who?

• These groups benefit from m___ the s____ q____, so their belief system tends to be c___ and f___ h___

2. U___ t___ justifies s____ c___.

• It reflects the position and interests of the u_____ and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently.

• For example, the working class are disadvantaged by the s__ q___ and may favour radical change to a classless society. Mannheim sees what as an example of utopian thought?

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

• Mannheim (1929; 2015) sees all belief systems as a one-sided worldview.

• Their one-sidedness results from being the viewpoint of one particular group or class and its interests.

This leads him to distinguish between two broad types of belief system or worldview:

1. Ideological thought justifies keeping things as they are.

• It reflects the position and interests of privileged groups such as the capitalist class. -

• These groups benefit from maintaining the status quo, so their belief system tends to be conservative and favours hierarchy.

2. Utopian thought justifies social change.

• It reflects the position and interests of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently.

• For example, the working class are disadvantaged by the status quo and may favour radical change to a classless society. Mannheim sees Marxism as an example of utopian thought.

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

• Mannheim sees these worldviews as creations of groups of i___ who attach themselves to particular classes.

• For example, the role of G___ o___ i_____ is to create a w____-c___ or s___ w___.

• However, because these intellectuals represent the interests of particular groups, and not society as a whole, they produce what?

• The belief system of each class or group only gives us a p____ truth about the world.

• For Mannheim, this is a source of c___ in society.

• Different intellectuals, linked to different groups and classes, produce o____ and a____ ideas that justify the interests and claims of their group as against the others.

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia

• Mannheim sees these worldviews as creations of groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes.

• For example, the role of Gramsci's organic intellectuals is to create a working-class or socialist worldview.

• However, because these intellectuals represent the interests of particular groups, and not society as a whole, they only produce partial views of reality.

• The belief system of each class or group only gives us a partial truth about the world.

• For Mannheim, this is a source of conflict in society.

• Different intellectuals, linked to different groups and classes, produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justify the interests and claims of their group as against the others.

 Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia-  The free-floating intelligentsia

• In Mannheim's view, the solution is therefore to 'd____' the i___ from the social groups they represent and create what?

• Freed from representing the interests of this or that group, they would be able to synthesise elements of the different partial ideologies and utopias so as to arrive at a 't___' w___ that represented the i_____ of s____ as a whole.

• However, many of the elements of different p____ ideologies are d____ o___ to one another and it is hard to imagine what?

• For example, how could Marxist ideas about the need to create a classless society be synthesised with what?

Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia-  The free-floating intelligentsia

• In Mannheim's view, the solution is therefore to 'detach' the intellectuals from the social groups they represent and create a non-aligned or free-floating intelligentsia standing above the conflict.

• Freed from representing the interests of this or that group, they would be able to synthesise elements of the different partial ideologies and utopias so as to arrive at a 'total' worldview that represented the interests of society as a whole.

• However, many of the elements of different political ideologies are diametrically opposed to one another and it is hard to imagine how these could be synthesised.

• For example, how could Marxist ideas about the need to create a classless society be synthesised with the conservative idea that hierarchy is essential and beneficial?

Feminism and ideology

• Feminists see what? as the fundamental division in society and p___ i___ as playing a key role in l___ it.

Feminism and ideology

• Feminists see gender inequality as the fundamental division in society and patriarchal ideology as playing a key role in legitimating it.

Feminism and ideology

• Because gender difference is a feature of all societies, there exist many different ideologies to justify it.

• For example, P___ M___ (1979) describes how ideas from where? have been used to justify excluding women from e___.

• She quotes who? expressing the view that educating females would lead to the creation of what and 'd____ women from their t___ v___', namely the nurturing of the n___ g____.

Feminism and ideology

• Because gender difference is a feature of all societies, there exist many different ideologies to justify it.

• For example, Pauline Marks (1979) describes how ideas from science have been used to justify excluding women from education.

• She quotes 19th century (male) doctors, scientists and educationalists expressing the view that educating females would lead to the creation of 'a new race of puny and unfeminine' females and 'disqualify women from their true vocation', namely the nurturing of the next generation.

Feminism and ideology

• In addition to patriarchal ideologies in science, those embodied in what sector? have also been used to define women as inferior.

• There are numerous examples from a wide range of religions of the idea that women are r___ i____ or u___, particularly because of c____ or m____.

• This has given rise to p___ r____ such as 'c____' after a woman has given birth. In some Christian churches, a n___ mother may not receive c____ until after she has been churched.

Feminism and ideology

• In addition to patriarchal ideologies in science, those embodied in religious beliefs and practices have also been used to define women as inferior.

• There are numerous examples from a wide range of religions of the idea that women are ritually impure or unclean, particularly because of childbirth or menstruation.

• This has given rise to purification rituals such as 'churching' after a woman has given birth. In some Christian churches, a new mother may not receive communion until after she has been churched.

Feminism and ideology

• However, not all elements of religious belief systems s____ w___.

• For example, there is evidence that, before the emergence of the m____ p____ religions, m___ religions with f___ d___ were w____, with f___ priests and the celebration of f___ cults.

• Similarly, in wat religion? , goddesses have often been portrayed as creators of the u___.

Feminism and ideology

• However, not all elements of religious belief systems subordinate women.

• For example, there is evidence that, before the emergence of the monotheistic patriarchal religions, matriarchal religions with female deities were widespread, with female priests and the celebration of fertility cults.

• Similarly, in Hinduism, goddesses have often been portrayed as creators of the universe.