PSYC 25 (Chapter 8; Module 3)

initiative versus guilt

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

According to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, early childhood corresponds to the ____ stage.

• Having established trust and autonomy in infancy, children now actively and exuberantly explore their social world.

• They use their developing motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen.

• They identify intensely with their parents and discovering the kind of person they will become.

• They have a surplus of energy that lets them forget failures quickly.

• This initiative is governed by the conscience, an internal regulation of right and wrong.

• While enthusiasm and new endeavors bring rewards, they can also lead to guilt, which can lower self-esteem.

conscience

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

According to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, early childhood corresponds to the ____ stage.

• Having established trust and autonomy in infancy, children now actively and exuberantly explore their social world.

• They use their developing motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen.

• They identify intensely with their parents and discovering the kind of person they will become.

• They have a surplus of energy that lets them forget failures quickly.

• This initiative is governed by the ____, an internal regulation of right and wrong.

• While enthusiasm and new endeavors bring rewards, they can also lead to guilt, which can lower self-esteem.

Self-understanding

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Self-Understanding]

____ is the child's representation of self

Physical and Material Attributes

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Self-Understanding]

Young children initially define themselves by material characteristics (size, shape, hair color), material possessions ("I have a bicycle"), and physical activities ("I can play"). Children often provide self-descriptions that involve bodily attributes, material possessions, and physical activities.

Emergence of Psychological Traits

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Self-Understanding]

Around 4 to 5 years of age, children begin to incorporate psychological traits and emotions into their self-descriptions (e.g., "I'm not scared. I'm always happy").

Unrealistic Positive Self-Views

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Self-Understanding]

Self-descriptions are typically unrealistically positive. Children at this age do not yet distinguish between their desired and actual competence, confuse ability with effort, and do not engage in spontaneous social comparison. This overestimation of their attributes protects them from negative self-evaluations.

Vulnerability

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Self-Understanding]

Despite this general optimism, research indicates that children in adverse family circumstances, such as those with insecure attachments and mothers reporting high stress, can develop a lower self-concept.

Understanding Others and Theory of Mind

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

Children's psychological awareness extends to their understanding of others, which is more sophisticated than previously thought.

Perceiving Traits

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Understanding Others and Theory of Mind]

At 4 to 5 years old, children begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits (e.g., "My teacher is nice").

Understanding Beliefs

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Understanding Others and Theory of Mind]

By age 4, children understand that people may make inaccurate statements to get what they want or avoid trouble. They become skeptical of others' claims when they are aware of a conflicting motive.

Joint Commitments

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Understanding Others and Theory of Mind]

By age 3, children's collaborative interactions increasingly involve an understanding of obligations to a partner.

Observational Learning

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Understanding Others and Theory of Mind]

Young children learn extensively by observing others. Studies show they are more likely to be honest after seeing a peer rewarded for confessing and are more likely to give gifts to people with trustworthy-looking faces.

The Social Sensitivity vs. Egocentrism Debate

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

Research increasingly shows that young children are more socially sensitive and perceptive than Jean Piaget's concept of egocentrism suggested. Scholars like Ross Thompson argue that young children actively seek to understand the mental and emotional states underlying people's actions. However, other researchers, such as Susan Harter, maintain there is still substantial evidence that young children remain essentially egocentric.

Emotional Development and Regulation

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

A growing awareness of self is linked to the ability to experience an expanding range of emotions and begin to control them.

self-conscious

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

While infants experience basic emotions like joy and fear, early childhood sees the rise of ___ emotions such as pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt. But, these emotions require self-awareness and distinct from others, which typically develops around 15 to 18 months of age, and are heavily influenced by parents' responses to a child's behavior. Emotions such as pride and guilt become more common.

understanding of emotion

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

One of the most significant emotional developments in this period is an increased ____.

2-4

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation;

understanding of emotion]

Age ___: Children dramatically increase their vocabulary of emotion terms and learn about the causes and consequences of feelings.

4-5

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation; understanding of emotion]

Age ___: Children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people and recognize the need to manage their emotions to meet social standards.

Emotion regulation

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

The ability to manage the demands and conflicts of social interaction—is fundamental to developing social competence and is considered an important component of self-regulation or executive function.

Peer Relations

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• ______: The ability to modulate one's emotions strongly predicts the success of a child’s peer relationships. Emotionally negative children are more likely to be rejected by peers, while emotionally positive and well-regulated children are more popular.

• Buffering Against Stress: Emotion regulation can serve as a buffer against internalizing symptoms associated with peer victimization.

• Interventions: Research by Cybele Raver and colleagues shows that interventions that improve caregiver emotional expressiveness can enhance young children's emotion regulation and reduce behavior problems, particularly in children living in poverty.

emotion-coaching and emotion-dismissing parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• Parents play a vital role in fostering emotional regulation, often adopting one of two approaches as described by John Gottman: _____ , ______

Emotion-coaching parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• Parents monitor children’s emotions, view negative emotions as teaching opportunities, help label emotions, and coach them in effective coping.

Emotion-coaching parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• Associated Child Outcomes: Children are better at self-soothing, regulating negative affect, focusing attention, and have fewer behavior problems.

Emotion-dismissing parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• Parents deny, ignore, or try to change negative emotions.

Emotion-dismissing parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

• Associated Child Outcomes: Children of these parents show poorer outcomes compared to those with emotion-coaching parents.

Supportive strategies

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

Have a positive emotional demeanor.

Validate a child’s emotions.

Help children learn emotion-coping strategies.

Discuss emotions, including labeling and causes.

Unsupportive strategies

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

Express uncontrolled or excessive negativity.

Punish children for their emotions.

Dismiss or ignore a child's expressions of emotion.

Emotions

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Emotional Development and Regulation]

___play a strong role in determining the success of a child's peer relationships. Specifically, the ability to modulate one's emotions is an important skill that benefits children in their relationships with peers.

Moral development

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

______ involves the evolution of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.

Psychoanalytic theory

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Which theoretical perspective on moral feelings talks about how Sigmund Freud proposed that the superego (the moral element of personality) forms as children internalize parental standards of right and wrong to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment. While his ideas are not backed by research, guilt can motivate moral behavior.

superego

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Which theoretical perspective on moral feelings talks about how Sigmund Freud proposed that the ____ (the moral element of personality) forms as children internalize parental standards of right and wrong to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment. While his ideas are not backed by research, guilt can motivate moral behavior.

Empathy

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

A key positive feeling, ___ is the ability to respond to another person's feelings with an emotion that echoes theirs. It often requires perspective taking—discerning another's inner psychological states.

Broader Emotional Range

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Modern developmentalists believe a wide range of both positive (empathy, sympathy, admiration) and negative (anger, shame, guilt) feelings contribute to moral development. When these emotions are strongly experienced, they influence children to act in accord with standards of right and wrong.

Piaget’s stages of moral reasoning

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Jean Piaget watched children play marbles to learn how they applied and thought about the game's rules. He concluded that children progress through two distinct stages of moral thinking: heteronomous morality and autonomous morality.

• Piaget believed this transition is driven by the give-and-take of peer relations, where children negotiate and reason about disagreements as equals.

give-and-take

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Jean Piaget watched children play marbles to learn how they applied and thought about the game's rules. He concluded that children progress through two distinct stages of moral thinking: heteronomous morality and autonomous morality.

• Piaget believed this transition is driven by the _____ of peer relations, where children negotiate and reason about disagreements as equals.

Heteronomous Morality

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning]

(Ages 4–7): Children view justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, beyond the control of people.

• Consequence-Based Judgment: The rightness of an act is judged by its consequences, not the actor's intentions (e.g., accidentally breaking 12 cups is worse than intentionally breaking one).

• Belief in Immanent Justice: The concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately and automatically.

Consequence-Based Judgment

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning; Heteronomous Morality]

(Ages 4–7): Children view justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, beyond the control of people.

• ______: The rightness of an act is judged by its consequences, not the actor's intentions (e.g., accidentally breaking 12 cups is worse than intentionally breaking one).

• Belief in Immanent Justice: The concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately and automatically.

Belief in Immanent Justice

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning; Heteronomous Morality]

(Ages 4–7): Children view justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, beyond the control of people.

• Consequence-Based Judgment: The rightness of an act is judged by its consequences, not the actor's intentions (e.g., accidentally breaking 12 cups is worse than intentionally breaking one).

• ______: The concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately and automatically.

Autonomous Morality 

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning]

(Ages 10+): Children become aware that rules and laws are created by people.

• Intention-Based Judgment: In judging an action, they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.

• Acceptance of Change: They recognize that rules are convenient conventions that can be changed.

Intention-Based Judgment

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning; Autonomous Morality]

(Ages 10+): Children become aware that rules and laws are created by people.

• ______: In judging an action, they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.

• Acceptance of Change: They recognize that rules are convenient conventions that can be changed.

Acceptance of Change

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Stages of Moral Reasoning; Autonomous Morality]

(Ages 10+): Children become aware that rules and laws are created by people.

• Intention-Based Judgment: In judging an action, they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.

• ______: They recognize that rules are convenient conventions that can be changed.

Moral Behavior 

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

This perspective focuses on behavior rather than reasoning. It posits that moral behavior is developed through:

• Reinforcement, Punishment, and Imitation: Children learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and adopt the actions of moral models they observe.

• Situational Influence: Moral behavior is often situation-dependent. A child might be honest in one context but not another.

• Self-Control: The ability to resist temptation and delay gratification is crucial for moral behavior.

Reinforcement, Punishment, and Imitation

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Moral Behavior]

This perspective focuses on behavior rather than reasoning. It posits that moral behavior is developed through:

• ______: Children learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and adopt the actions of moral models they observe.

• Situational Influence: Moral behavior is often situation-dependent. A child might be honest in one context but not another.

• Self-Control: The ability to resist temptation and delay gratification is crucial for moral behavior.

Situational Influence

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Moral Behavior]

This perspective focuses on behavior rather than reasoning. It posits that moral behavior is developed through:

• Reinforcement, Punishment, and Imitation: Children learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and adopt the actions of moral models they observe.

• ______: Moral behavior is often situation-dependent. A child might be honest in one context but not another.

• Self-Control: The ability to resist temptation and delay gratification is crucial for moral behavior.

Self-Control

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development; Moral Behavior]

This perspective focuses on behavior rather than reasoning. It posits that moral behavior is developed through:

• Reinforcement, Punishment, and Imitation: Children learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and adopt the actions of moral models they observe.

• Situational Influence: Moral behavior is often situation-dependent. A child might be honest in one context but not another.

• _____: The ability to resist temptation and delay gratification is crucial for moral behavior.

moral apprentices

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Moral development]

Ross Thompson views young children as "_____." Key aspects of the parent-child relationship that contribute to moral development include:

• Relational Quality: Positive caregiving and mutual obligations.

• Parental Discipline: Methods used to correct misbehavior.

• Proactive Strategies: Averting potential misbehavior by using diversion or talking about values.

• Conversational Dialogue: Discussing past, future, or immediate events related to moral conduct.

Gender

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

____ refers to a mosaic of categories related to feminity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms. It is a central aspect of identity and social relationships. Key concepts include:

• Gender Identity: The sense of being male or female, acquired by most children by age 3.

• Gender Roles: Sets of expectations prescribing how males and females should think, act, and feel.

• Gender Typing: The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Biological Influences

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender]

• Chromosomes and Hormones: The 23rd chromosome pair (XX for female, XY for male) determines sex. Genes on the Y chromosome trigger the development of testes, which secrete androgens (like testosterone), promoting male characteristics. Low androgen levels allow for the development of female sex organs, influenced by estrogens.

• Evolutionary Psychology View: This theory suggests that differing roles in reproduction led to psychological differences. Natural selection favored males with short-term mating strategies (promoting dispositions for violence, competition, risk-taking) and females who secured resources for offspring (promoting parenting effort and choosing successful mates). Critics argue this view is speculative and pays too little attention to cultural variations.

Social Role Theory

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Social Theories of Gender]

• _____ (Alice Eagly): Gender differences result from the contrasting societal roles of men and women. As women adapted to roles with less power and status, they developed more cooperative and less dominant profiles.

Psychoanalytic Theory

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Social Theories of Gender]

• _____ (Sigmund Freud): Suggests children identify with the same-sex parent after resolving the Oedipus/Electra complex around age 5 or 6, renouncing the sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent. This theory is not well-supported, as gender typing occurs much earlier.

Social Cognitive Theory

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Social Theories of Gender]

• ______: Argues that gender development occurs through observing and imitating others' behavior and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.

Parental Influences

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender]

• _______: Parents influence gender development through action and example.

  • Mothers' socialization strategies

    • Mothers often socialize daughters to be more obedient and responsible and place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy

  • Fathers' socialization strategies

    • fathers tend to show more attention to sons and promote their intellectual development.

gender school

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Parental Influences]

• Peer Influences: Parents provide the earliest discrimination of gender roles. The playground acts as a "_____" where peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior. There is greater pressure for boys to conform to traditional male roles than for girls. Gender also influences:

  • Gender Composition of Group: Children prefer same-sex playmates, a preference that increases from age 4 to 12.

  • Group Size: 5 years of age onwards, boys tend to associate in larger clusters.

  • Interaction Style: Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play, competition, and dominance-seeking, while girls engage in more "collaborative discourse."

gender school

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Parental Influences]

• Peer Influences: Parents provide the earliest discrimination of gender roles. The playground acts as a "_____" where peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior. There is greater pressure for boys to conform to traditional male roles than for girls. Gender also influences:

  • Gender Composition of Group: Children prefer same-sex playmates, a preference that increases from age 4 to 12.

  • Group Size: 5 years of age onwards, boys tend to associate in larger clusters.

  • Interaction Style: Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play, competition, and dominance-seeking, while girls engage in more "collaborative discourse."

Gender Schema Theory 

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Gender; Cognitive Influences]

• This theory states that gender typing emerges as children develop gender schemas—cognitive networks of associations—about what is gender-appropriate in their culture. These schemas organize their world in terms of male and female, motivating them to perceive and act in ways that conform to their schema.

  • Scheme: cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides an individual's perceptions

  • Gender schema: organizes the world in terms of female and male. This fuels gender typing.

Diana Baumrind

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families]

• _____ identified four parenting styles based on the dimensions of acceptance/responsiveness and demand/control.

• Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful

Authoritative 

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

• Encourages independence but places limits and controls; warm and nurturing with extensive verbal give-and-take.

• Associated Child Outcomes

  • Cheerful, self-controlled, self-reliant, achievement-oriented, good peer relations, cope well with stress.

Authoritarian

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

• Restrictive, punitive style with firm limits and little verbal exchange; "my way or else." A bully perpetrator.

• Associated Child Outcomes

  • Unhappy, fearful, anxious, fail to initiate activity, weak communication skills. Associated with bullying and child maltreatment.

Indulgent

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

• Highly involved but places few demands or controls; lets children do what they want.

• Associated Child Outcomes

  • Rarely learn respect, difficulty controlling behavior, domineering, egocentric, poor peer relations.

Neglectful

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

• Parent is uninvolved in the child's life. Children think the other aspects of their parents' lives are more important than them.

• Associated Child Outcomes

  • Socially incompetent, poor self-control, low self-esteem, immature. Associated with truancy and delinquency in adolescence.

Thoughts on Parenting Styles

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

• Do not capture the important themes of reciprocal socialization and synchrony.

• Many parents use a combination of techniques rather than a single technique.

• Some critics argue that the concept of parenting style is too broad and that more research needs to be conducted to “unpack” parenting styles.

• Much of the research on parenting styles has involved mothers, not fathers.

Corporal punishment

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

_____ (e.g., spanking) is legal in every U.S. state and has widespread approval among parents, yet it is outlawed in 59 countries (as of 2020). Reasons to avoid harsh physical punishment include:

• It presents an out-of-control model for handling stress. Children may imitate this aggressive, out-of-control behavior.

• It can instill fear, rage, and avoidance.

• It tells children what not to do rather than what to do.

• It can escalate into abuse.

While debate continues, an increasing majority of experts conclude that physical punishment has harmful effects on children and should not be used. Many child psychologists recommend handling misbehavior by reasoning with the child.

Coparenting

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Parenting Styles]

The support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child.

Working parents

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Impact of a Changing Society on Family Structures]

Over half of U.S. mothers with children under 5 are in the labor force. Parents report difficulty balancing work and family, with mothers more likely to feel this strain.

Divorced families

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Impact of a Changing Society on Family Structures]

An estimated 40% of children born to married parents in the U.S. will experience divorce. Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment on average, but a majority do not have significant problems. Key factors influencing outcomes are the level of marital conflict (both before and after divorce) and the quality of post-divorce family processes, such as harmonious co-parenting.

LGBTQ Families

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Impact of a Changing Society on Family Structures]

Research finds few differences between children growing up with lesbian or gay parents and those with heterosexual parents regarding adjustment, mental health, and peer popularity. The vast majority of children raised in LGBTQ families have a heterosexual orientation.

Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Impact of a Changing Society on Family Structures]

Family structures, kinship networks, and parenting practices vary across cultures. Immigrant families face unique stressors but often show great resilience, with many adopting a bicultural orientation. Low socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to reduced resources and poorer outcomes, though many children from low-SES backgrounds succeed.

Child Maltreatment

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Child Maltreatment]

Unfortunately, punishment sometimes leads to the abuse of infants and children. Whereas the public and many professionals use the term child abuse to refer to both abuse and neglect, developmentalists increasingly use the term child maltreatment.

Child Neglect

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Child Maltreatment]

Which type of maltreatment refers to the failure to provide for basic needs (most common form). This can be physical, educational, or emotional.

Physical Abuse

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Child Maltreatment]

Infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child.

Sexual Abuse

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Child Maltreatment]

Includes fondling, intercourse, incest, rape, and exploitation.

Emotional Abuse

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Child Maltreatment]

Acts or omissions causing serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems.

Child Maltreatment

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families]

• The forms of child maltreatment often occur in combination and emotional abuse is almost always present.

• Consequences: Maltreatment is linked to poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, difficulty in school, depression, delinquency, substance abuse, and long-term physical and mental health problems in adulthood.

Sibling Relationships

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families]

• When siblings are fighting, the parents do one of these three things: (1) intervene and try to help their children resolve the conflict, (2) admonish or threaten their children, or (3) do nothing at all. Siblings with 2 to 5 years of age, the most frequent parental reaction is to do nothing at all.

  • Laurie Kramer found out that not intervening and letting sibling conflict escalate are not good strategies.She developed a program titled “More Fun with Sisters and Brothers” that teaches 4- to 8-year-old siblings social skills that promote positive interactions.

Sibling Relationships

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families]

Judy Dunn (2015), a leading expert on sibling relationships, recently described three important characteristics of sibling relationships:

1. Emotional quality of the relationship

   • Intense positive and negative emotions expressed toward each other. Children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward their siblings.

2. Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship

   • Siblings know each other very well. They can either provide support or tease and undermine each other.

3. Variation in sibling relationships

Emotional quality

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Sibling Relationships]

Judy Dunn (2015), a leading expert on sibling relationships, recently described three important characteristics of sibling relationships:

1. _____ of the relationship

   • Intense positive and negative emotions expressed toward each other. Children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward their siblings.

2. Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship

   • Siblings know each other very well. They can either provide support or tease and undermine each other.

3. Variation in sibling relationships

Familiarity and intimacy

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Sibling Relationships]

Judy Dunn (2015), a leading expert on sibling relationships, recently described three important characteristics of sibling relationships:

1. Emotional quality of the relationship

   • Intense positive and negative emotions expressed toward each other. Children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward their siblings.

2. _____ of the relationship

   • Siblings know each other very well. They can either provide support or tease and undermine each other.

3. Variation in sibling relationships

First born

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Birth Order]

1. ____ - adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled

2. Only child - achievement-orientedand display a desirable personality despite popular conception of them being "spoiled brat"

Only child

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Birth Order]

1. First born- adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled

2. ____ - achievement-oriented and display a desirable personality despite popular conception of them being "spoiled brat"

Peer Relations and Their Function

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Influence of Peers, Play, and Media]

As children age, they spend increasing time with peers, who serve as a vital source of information and social comparison outside the family. Good peer relations are critical for normal socioemotional development.

• Parental Influence: Parents influence peer relations directly (coaching) and indirectly (choosing neighborhoods and schools).

• Developmental Changes: Preference for same-sex playmates increases, and peer interactions become more coordinated.

Play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Influence of Peers, Play, and Media]

Play is a pleasurable activity that is essential for development. Theorists like Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Vygotsky all viewed play as a child's "work," crucial for mastering anxieties and conflicts. Children can cope more effectively with life's problems because of the tensions relieved in play. Play permits children to work off excess physical energy and to release pent-up tensions. Play is also an important context for advancing cognitive development.

Vygotsky

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Influence of Peers, Play, and Media]

____- play as an excellent setting for cognitive development

Berlyne - play as exciting and pleasurable in itself because it satisfies our exploratory drive. This drive involves curiosity and a desire for information about something new or unusual.

Play as an important context for the development of language and communication skills. Play is a central focus of the child-centered kindergarten and essential aspect of early childhood education.

Berlyne

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; Influence of Peers, Play, and Media]

Vygotsky - play as an excellent setting for cognitive development

___- play as exciting and pleasurable in itself because it satisfies our exploratory drive. This drive involves curiosity and a desire for information about something new or unusual.

Play as an important context for the development of language and communication skills. Play is a central focus of the child-centered kindergarten and essential aspect of early childhood education.

Sensorimotor Play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Deriving pleasure from exercising sensorimotor schemes (infancy); repetition of behavior when learning new skills (throughout life). It follows Piaget's description of sensorimotor thought. Infants initially engage in exploratory and playful visual and motor transactions in the second quarter of the first year of life. At about 9 months of age, infants begin to select novel objects for exploration and play, especially responsive objects such as toys that make noise or bounce. This is confined to infancy.

Practice play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports. This is engaged throughout life.

Pretense/Symbolic Play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Transforming the physical environment into a symbol; peaks at 4-5 years of age. They learn to transform objects—substituting them for other objects and acting toward them as if they were those other objects. Preschool years as the "golden age" that is dramatic or sociodramatic in nature.

Social play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Involves interaction with peers; increases dramatically during preschool years. Main context for young children’s social interactions with peers

Constructive Play

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation to create a product or solution. Increases in the preschool years as symbolic play increases and sensorimotor play decreases. It also becomes a frequent form of play in the elementary school years, both within and outside the classroom.

Games

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood; Families; The Critical Role and Types of Play]

Activities engaged in for pleasure that have rules and often involve competition.

Screen time

[The Development of the Self in Early Childhood]

____ refers to time spent with television, computers, video games, and mobile devices.

• Recommendations: The World Health Organization recommends no more than 1 hour of sedentary screen time daily for 3- to 4-year-olds. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no more than 1 hour of high-quality programming per day for 2- to 5-year-olds.

• Negative Effects: Excessive screen time is linked to:

  • Passive learning and distraction from homework.

  • Higher rates of aggression, especially from viewing violent content on TV or in video games.

  • Decreased time in play and peer interaction.

  • Poor sleep habits, decreased physical activity, and increased risk of obesity.

  • Inattention problems and lower cognitive development.

• Positive Effects: High-quality educational programs like Sesame Street are linked to positive outcomes in cognitive skills and social reasoning. Media that models prosocial behavior can increase children's empathy and prosocial actions. Parental monitoring of media use is linked to multiple positive child outcomes.