B/B

Responsible for joining two large biomolecules, often of the same type

Ligases

Catalyze the interconversion of isomers, including both constitutional and stereoisomers

Isomerases

Catalyze cleavage without the addition of water and without the transfer of electrons. The reverse reaction (synthesis) is usually more biologically important

Lyases

Catalyze cleavage with the addition of water

Hydrolase

Catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions that involve the transfer of electrons

Oxidoreductases

Move a functional group from one molecule to another molecule

Transferases

Michael is Menten

V = Vmax[S]/Km + [S]

Lineweaver-Burk

Kcat = Vmax/[enzyme]

Catalytic efficiency

Catalytic efficiency = Kcat/Km

At one half Vmax,

[S] = Km

Competitive Enzyme

Active site; Km increases and No Change to Vmax

Noncompetitive Inhibition

Allosteric Site Binding; No Change to Km and Vmax Decreases

Uncompetitive Binding

Enzyme-substrate complex binding; Both Km and Vmax Decrease

Native PAGE vs SDS-PAGE

Native PAGE analyzes folded proteins; detergents in SDS-PAGE uses detergent to break all noncovalent interactions and analyzes the unfolded state

___ reagents can be used to break covalent ___ bonds.

Reducing reagents; disulfide bonds

Tertiary Structure is stabilized by

Hydrophobic interactions, acid-base interactions (salt bridges), hydrogen bonding, and disulfide bonds

Collagen, elastin, keratin, actin, and tubular are

Fibrous motor proteins

Myosin, kinesin, and dyenin are

Motor proteins capable of force generation through a conformational change

Cadherins, integrity, and selections are

Cell adhesion molecules (CAM); bind cells to other cells or surfaces

Three main types of ion channels

Undated, voltage-gated, and ligand-gated channels

Triose

3-carbon sugars

Tetrose

4-Carbon sugars

Epimer

Differ at exactly one chiral carbon

Anomers

A subtype of epimers that differ at the anomeric carbon

Anomeric Carbon

Chiral center formed in the ring closure; carbon that contained carbonyl in the straight chain form

alpha-anomeric

Have the -OH on the anomeric carbon trans tot he free -CH₂OH

Beta-anomers

Have the -OH on the anomeric carbon cis to the free -CH₂OH

Deoxy Sugars

Replace an -OH group with a -H

Sucrose

Glucose-alpha-1,2-fructose

Lactose

Galactose-beta-1,4-glucose

Maltose

Glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose

Any sugar with an anomeric carbon not bound in a glycosidic bond will react with reagents like

Tollen’s and Benedict’s

Purines

A and G (double ring)

Pyrimidines

C, U, and T (single rings)

Reannealing

Brings back together pulled apart strands

Telomere

Ends of chromosomes. Contain high GC-content to prevent DNA unraveling

Centromeres

Hold sister chromatids together until anaphase. High GC-content

Used in DNA sequencing to terminate the DNA chain because they lack a 3’-OH group

Dideoxyribonucleotides

Nonsense (truncation)

Premature stop codon

Missense

Produce a codon that codes for a different amino acid

____ binds to ___ within the promoter region of the gene

RNA polymerase II; TATA Box

Synthesized from DNA template (antisense) strand

HnRNA

5’ cap

7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap

Jacob-Monod model

Operó a are indecible or repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single mRNA

Pinocytosis

Ingestion of liquid into the cell from vesicles formed from the cell membrane

Phagocytosis

Ingestion of solid material

Present in liver and pancreatic Beta cells, responsive to insulin; phosphorylation glucose

glucokinase

Present in all tissue; phosphorylation glucose to trap it in cells

Hexokinase

rate-limiting step

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

Produces F2,6-BP which activates PFK-1

Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)

Produces NADH

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

Perform substrate-level phosphorylation

3-phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase

Lactate dehydrogenase

Oxidizes NADH anaerobically in the cytoplasm

Shuttle NADH across the inner mitochondrial membrane

Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle or the malate aspartate shuttle

Glycolysis yield

2 NADH and 2 ATP

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

1 NADH (2 NADH per glucose molecule; 1 per pyruvate)

Citric acid cycle

3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, 1 GTP (6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, and 2 GTP per glucose molecule)

Each NADH produces

2.5 ATP; 10 NADH form 25 ATP

Each FADH₂

1.5 ATP; 2 FADH₂ form 3 ATP

__ are converted to __

GTP to ATP

2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (GTP) from citric acid cycle + 25 ATP from NADH + 3 ATP from FADH₂

32 ATP (30-32 ATP)

Creates alpha-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules, activated by insulin in the liver and muscles

Glycogen synthase

Moves a block of oligoglucose from one chain and connects it as a branch using an alpha-1,6 glycosidic link

Branching enzyme

Removes single glucose-1-phosphate molecules by breaking alpha-1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, it is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood sugar. In exercising muscle, it is activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide glucose for the muscle itself

Glycogen phosphorylase

Moves a block of oligoglucose from one branch and connects it to the chain using an alpha-1,4 glycosidic link

Debranching enzyme

The Penrose phosphate pathway generates

NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis

How are lipids transported

Via chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL

The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is

HMG-CoA reductase

Only fatty acid that humans can synthesize

Palmitos acid

Protein digestion occurs in the

Small intestine

Maintains blood glucose through glycogen lysis and gluconeogenesis. Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and toxins

Liver

Stores and releases lipids

Adipose

Conserves carbohydrates as glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel

Resting muscle

May use anaerobic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct phosphorylation (creating phosphate), or fatty acid oxidation

Active muscle

Uses fatty acid oxidation

Cardiac muscle

Uses glucose except in prolonged starvation, when it can use ketolysis

Brain

Four stages of early development

Cleavage, Implantation, Gastrulation, Neurulation

Mitotic Divisions

Cleavage

Embryo implants during blastula stage

Implantation

Ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm form

Gastrulation

Germ layers develop a nervous system

Neurulation

Nervous system, epidermis, lens of eye, inner ear

Ectoderm (attractoderm)

Lining of digestive tract, lungs, liver and pancreas

Endoderm (endernal organs)

Muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidney

Mesoderm ( means oderm )

Liver’s Role in Homeostasis

Gluconeogenesis; processing of nitrogenous wastes (urea); detoxification of wastes/chemicals/drugs; storage of iron and vitamin A; synthesis of bile and blood proteins; Beta oxidation of fatty acids to ketones; interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids

Layers of the Skin

Stratum corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinous, basalis

Filtrates (fluid and small solutes) passes through passively at the __-

Filtration; glomerulus

Acids, bases, and ions from interstitial fluid to filtrate. Maintains pH, potassium concentration, and waste concentration.

Secretion

Essential substances and water flow from filtrate to blood. Enabled by osmolarity gradient and selective permeability of the walls

Reabsorption

Stimulates Na+ and water reabsorption; secreted from adrenal cortex in response to low blood pressure.

Aldosterone

Aldosterone is regulated by the

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Increases collecting duct’s permeability to water to increase water reabsorption.

ADH (Vasopressin)

ADH (Vasopressin) is released from the __ in response to _

Posterior pituitary; high blood osmolarity

Regulate blood osmolarity and volume

Kidneys

Act via second messengers

Peptides

Act via hormone/receptor binding to DNA

Steroids

Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis. Secreted by anterior pituitary

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis. Produced by the anterior pituitary

Luteinizing (LH)

Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids. From the anterior pituitary

Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)

Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones. Anterior pituitary

Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)