Experimental Methods 2: What is the scientific process?

What are the three main ways we explain other people’s behaviors?

Authority (external reliance), Intuition (internal reliance on feelings), and Pure Observation (based on sensory experiences).

What is authority?

External reliance in explaining people’s behaviours

Someone else telling you what’s true and not

Problem: reliance purely on other people’s opinions

What is intuition?

Internal reliance → explanations of people’s behaviours come from purely within from yourself and feelings

Product of all your experiences

Problem: can’t be shared with other people and we cannot align intuitions between people

What is pure observation?

Gaining any knowledge by observing the world through your senses

Reliance on yourself witnessing things that happen in the world and forming opinions from these observations

Blend of internal and external observations → is sharable with other people

Why is "pure" observation problematic?

• Observation isn’t always possible (e.g., internal processes).

• Observations can be deceptive (e.g., visual illusions).

• Observations may change over time (e.g., bistable perceptions like the duck-rabbit illusion).

• People may disagree on observations due to differing expectations or perceptions.

What are the key components of the scientific method?

• Theories – Potential explanations based on observations.

• Hypotheses – Predictions that are testable and falsifiable.

• Studies/Experiments – Finding/creating observable situations to test hypotheses.

How does the scientific method address the limitations of observation?

• Employs scientific skepticism (avoids attachment to theories).

• Ensures peer review (reduces biases).

• Encourages replication (validates findings).

• Promotes openness (data is public).

• Uses double-blind experiments to minimize bias.

• Demands falsifiable hypotheses.

Scientific Skepticism

Idea that scientists are always trying to prove themselves wrong, not getting too attached to theories

Theories that survive are the ones we fail to prove wrong

Peer Review

Conclusions are reviewed by other scientists to reduce biases and opinions

Replication

Studies should produce very similar results when reproduced using different people

Openness

All data should be publicly available (to reduce unreliability of observation)

Double-blind experiments

Neither the participants nor data collectors are aware of the hypothesis to prevent influence of the outcome due to bias

Falsifiable hypotheses

Can be proven false with observation alone; E.g., invisible fairies are not observable though it can be true; cannot be studied in the context of science

Which of the following is a scientific hypothesis?

a) People procrastinate due to performance anxiety.
b) Dogs can talk but choose not to reveal it.
c) Students who highlight tend to perform worse on tests.
d) All of the above.

c) is correct, as it is testable and observable.

a is an explanation rather than a hypothesis

b is an example of a hypothesis but it is not observable, so it is not a scientific hypothesis

What are the five steps in the scientific method process?

Hypothesize (hypotheses, confirmatory or exploratory studies) → Operationalize (operational definition) → Measure (instruments with validity, reliability, and power/sensitivity; data = instrument + definition) → Analyze → Report (peer review).

What is the difference between confirmatory and exploratory studies?

• Confirmatory: Tests a specific, falsifiable hypothesis.

• Exploratory: Collects data to form initial theories when little is known.

What is an operational definition, and why is it important?

It describes a psychological property in observable, measurable terms. It ensures clarity and testability (e.g., measuring stage fright via heart rate).

What makes a good measurement instrument?

• Validity – Measures what it claims to measure.

• Reliability – Produces consistent results.

• Power/Sensitivity – Detects small differences.

A final exam that can only differentiate between students who will pass the class vs. those who will fail the class is very low in:
a) Validity
b) Power
c) Reliability
d) All of the above

b) Power.

a → what’s tested is unrelated to the material

c → question is so random and all over the place that you get a different grade every time

What is the role of peer review in the scientific process?

• Ensures skepticism about claims.

• Assesses instrument quality (validity, reliability, power).

• Double-checks data analysis.

What are the assumptions underlying the scientific process?

1. Human nature can be scientifically studied.

2. Some human traits are fixed, predictable, and universal.

3. Generalizations apply to groups, not individuals.