Honors Biology Final Study Guide - Unit 5

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Gene

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section of DNA that determines a specific trait

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Genetically Modified Organisms

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to alter an organism's DNA using genetic engineering techniques to introduce/modify specific traits

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82 Terms

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Gene

section of DNA that determines a specific trait

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Genetically Modified Organisms

to alter an organism's DNA using genetic engineering techniques to introduce/modify specific traits

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nucleic acid

a complex organic molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development of living organisms

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DNA

the molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development and functioning of an organism

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nucleotide

the basic building block of nucleic acids

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RNA

a nucleic acid molecule similar to DNA but containing ribose rather than deoxyribose

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protein

a complex molecule made up of amino acids that performs a wide variety of functions in living organisms

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chromosome

a structure within a cell that contains DNA, organized into genes

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specialized cells

cells that have specific structures and functions

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gene expression

the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product

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mutation

a change in the DNA sequence of an organism virus, or extra chromosomal DNA

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Deoxyribonucleic acid

Genetic information found in every cell

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Function of DNA

Provide genetic information to every cell (generation to generation, new cells) and Direct the production of proteins

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Structure of Nucleotides in DNA

Composed of nucleotides, Deoxyribose sugar, Phosphate, Nitrogenous base

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Four Different Bases in DNA

Adenine (A & T), Guanine (G & C), Thymine (T & A), Cytosine (C & G)

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Structure of DNA

DNA is arranged in a double helix, Two strands of DNA form opposite one another and then twist, Looks like a ladder that is twisted or a spiral staircase

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Replication Fork

Y-shaped region where parental DNA strands are being unwound

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DNA Replication

the copying of DNA

<p>the copying of DNA</p>
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Topoisomerase (Gyrase)

relaxes supercoiled DNA ahead of the replication fork so that replication moves forward

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Helicase

unwinds portion of the DNA double helix & makes it single stranded

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single-stranded binding proteins

bind to the single stranded DNA and keep the two strands apart

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Complementary strands of DNA

Strands that are synthesized using single parent strands as templates.

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Free nucleotides

Nucleotides that form hydrogen bonds with complementary bases on template DNA to create new DNA strands.

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DNA polymerase enzyme

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds during DNA synthesis.

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Direction of DNA synthesis

New DNA is made in the 5' to 3' direction.

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Daughter DNA strands

Each daughter DNA has one original parent (template) strand and one newly synthesized strand, known as semi-conservative replication.

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Antiparallel strands

The two strands in a DNA molecule run in opposite directions, one is 5' to 3' and the other is 3' to 5'.

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Leading strand

The new DNA strand that grows in the 5' → 3' direction.

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Lagging strand

The new strand that grows in the 3' to 5' direction, replicated in pieces.

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Replication of the lagging strand

DNA polymerase cannot catalyze DNA formation in the 3' → 5' direction, so it is replicated in pieces.

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Okazaki fragments

Pieces of DNA that are replicated in a 5' → 3' direction on the lagging strand.

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Primase enzyme

An enzyme that synthesizes short RNA primers, which are about 10 to 15 bases long, serving as a starting point for DNA synthesis.

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DNA ligase

An enzyme that connects Okazaki fragments, resulting in a continuous 3' → 5' strand.

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Proofreading

The process by which DNA polymerase acts as a 'spell checker' to ensure the correct bases are added during replication.

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RNA Structure

RNA can be single or double stranded, combination.

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Sugar in RNA

Sugar is ribose.

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Nitrogenous Bases in RNA

Four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Uracil (U).

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Nucleotide Bonding

Nucleotides bound together on backbone by phosphodiester bonds (covalent).

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Base Pairing in RNA

Base pairing in double stranded regions: A with U, G with C.

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Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries genetic information from DNA (in the cell nucleus) to the ribosomes (in cytoplasm) for synthesis of proteins.

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mRNA Production

Each gene segment of DNA produces a specific mRNA.

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mRNA Template Function

The sequence of nucleotides in mRNA serves as a template for the arrangement of amino acids in a protein.

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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Combined with proteins in the ribosomes.

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Ribosome Function

Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.

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Location of rRNA

Free in cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (fixed).

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Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Uses the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA to bring specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

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tRNA for Amino Acids

Each of the 20 amino acids has one or more tRNA molecules.

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Structure of tRNA

Cloverleaf structure due to hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs in the single chain of nucleotides.

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tRNA Acceptor Stem

Acceptor stem attaches to amino acid.

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tRNA Anticodon

Series of three bases that complements three bases (codon) on mRNA.

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Transcription

RNA Polymerase - enzyme that reads the template DNA and transcribes the DNA to RNA.

<p>RNA Polymerase - enzyme that reads the template DNA and transcribes the DNA to RNA.</p>
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Transcription Initiation

Once DNA strands have separated and the promoter is exposed, transcription can begin.

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RNA Polymerase Binding

RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region on the DNA then starts transcription to form RNA.

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Transcription Elongation

Elongation - RNA polymerase attaches adenine, guanine, cytosine, & uracil to the growing mRNA chain.

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Transcription Termination

Termination - At the termination signal in the DNA template, RNA polymerase & the new mRNA strand detach from the DNA (5' - 3%).

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Synthesis of mRNA

Occurs only when protein is needed in the cell.

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Immature mRNA transcript

Considered 'immature' at the end of transcription.

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Exons

Sections of DNA in a gene that code for proteins.

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Introns

Sections of DNA in a gene that do not code for proteins.

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Intervening DNA

DNA that is 'in between' protein coding sections.

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Pre-mRNA

A copy of the entire DNA template (introns and exons) at the completion of transcription.

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mRNA processing

Involves removing introns and splicing together the remaining exons.

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Functional mRNA

Ready to leave the nucleus and deliver genetic information to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.

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7-Methyl Guanosine (7mG)

Added to the 5' end of the mRNA to protect it from nucleases and identify it as mRNA.

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Poly A tail

Added to the 3' end of mRNA, consisting of 50 to 100 A nucleotides, to protect it from nucleases.

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tRNA

Transfer RNA that translates mRNA's message.

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Codons

Determine which amino acid is coded for by the DNA.

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Initiation

Small ribosome subunit binds to mRNA at the START codon AUG.

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Elongation

A site recognizes codon and pairs with the correct tRNA; peptide bonds form between amino acids.

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Termination

Occurs when a STOP codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) is reached at the A site.

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Release factor protein

Frees the new protein from the ribosome during termination.

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Point Mutations

One base altered (base pair substitution).

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Silent Mutation

No effect on the protein.

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Missense Mutation

Changes an amino acid in the protein.

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Nonsense Mutation

Creates a STOP codon in the sequence.

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Insertion

Extra base(s) added to the DNA sequence.

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Deletion

Removal of base(s) from the DNA sequence.

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Frameshift Mutations

Created by insertion and deletion mutations.

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Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites).

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Blunt ends

DNA ends cut straight across by restriction enzymes.

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Sticky ends

Unpaired bases of DNA that can form bonds with complementary bases.

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DNA ligase enzyme

Used to put together two different pieces of DNA via sticky ends.