Research Methods
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Eduqas GCE A Level Psychology - Component 2 - Research Methods
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280 Terms
What is meant by the term operationalisation?
Giving a precise definition of the variables being measured.
What is an extraneous variable?
Variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but affect the results of all participants equally.
What are confounding variables?
Variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher, that affect some participants’ behaviours but not others.
What is meant by the aim of a piece of research?
A broad statement that describes the purpose of an investigation.
What is an experimental/alternate hypothesis?
A testable statement that a piece of research attempts to support or reject.
What is a directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that suggests there will be a difference/relationship between variables, where the IV will affect the DV in one specific direction/outcome.
What is meant by a non-directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that suggests there will be a difference/relationship between variables, the IV will affect the DV, but does not state a specific direction/outcome for results.
What is meant by a null hypothesis?
A hypothesis that suggests there will be no difference/relationship between variables, any that does occur does so by chance.
What is meant by a lab location?
A location of research where scientific research and measurement can be taken using specialist/large equipment. Conditions and variables are controlled, and procedures are standardised.
What is meant by a lab experiment?
A research method where cause and effect is measured in a controlled/contrived environment, through the control and manipulation of key variables, and where the participants are randomly allocated to experimental/control groups.
What are the strengths of using a lab experiment in research?
Easy to replicate the research due to a standardised procedure, increasing reliability.
High control means that cause-and-effect can be determined, increasing internal validity.
What are the limitations of using a lab experiment in research?
May produce demand characteristics.
Artificial environment so unlikely to be reflective of everyday behaviour - it lacks ecological validity.
What is meant by a field location?
A location of research outside of the laboratory, in a natural setting e.g. school, hospital, workplace etc. It has lower levels of control over confounding variables than the laboratory, but can still utilise a standardised procedure.
What is meant by a field experiment?
A research method where cause and effect is measured in a natural setting, through the control and manipulation of key variables, and where the participants are randomly allocated to experimental/control groups.
What are the strengths of using a field experiment in research?
Carried out in an everyday environment, so reflective of everyday behaviour - therefore high in ecological validity.
Less chance of demand characteristics as participants are unaware they are being studied.
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* **Ethical Issues** - if participants are unaware they are being studied, it may be hard to debrief them.
What is meant by a quasi study?
A research where the experimenter has NOT deliberately manipulated the IV and participants are NOT randomly allocated. Methods within this category include natural experiments and difference studies.
What is meant by a quasi natural study?
A research method where the IV arises naturally, although the DV can still be measured in a laboratory or any other location of the researcher’s choice. This method would be used when it is unethical to directly manipulate the IV.
What are the strengths of using a quasi natural study in research?
High external validity as can study ‘real problems’ as they happen.
Can be used when it is unethical or impractical to manipulate the IV.
What are the limitations of using a quasi natural study in research?
Reduced opportunities for study as events may happen rarely (hard to generalise).
Hard to establish cause-and-effect due to lack of control when IV is naturally occuring.
What are the limitations of using a quasi difference study in research?
Due to being ‘like a lab’, there is a low ecological validity.
Cannot randomly allocate people to conditions so there may be confounding variables.
What is meant by an online location?
A location of research where participants are accessed via the internet/social networks/mobile apps etc. Often involves questionnaires but can also be experimental, correlational etc.
What are the strengths of using an online study in research?
It is faster to find a larger, global sample of participants.
Access to various social groups.
Less time consuming and cost-effective.
What are the limitations of using an online study in research?
The researcher cannot monitor the behaviour of participants, so there may be ethical issues.
Online participants may invest less time into online experiments. They are more likely to drop out.
What is meant by an independent groups design?
An experimental design where participants take part in only one experimental condition — participants are divided into 2 groups. One group does condition A and the other does condition B.
What are the strengths of using an independent groups design in research?
No order effects as there are difference people in each condition.
Faster as both conditions can take place at the same time.
Less chance of demand characteristics.
What are the limitations of using an independent groups design in research?
Individual differences may impact the results.
Larger sample needed than repeated measures.
What is meant by a repeated measures design?
An experimental design where participants take part in both the control and experimental conditions — there is 1 group of participants, they take part in both conditions of the study.
What are the strengths of using a repeated measures design in research?
Limits the impact of individual differences.
Less participants needed than independent groups or matched pairs.
What are the limitations of using a matched pairs design in research?
Possibility of order effects as there are the same people in each condition (unless counter-balancing is used).
Slower than independent groups as you cannot do both conditions at the same time.
Greater chance of demand characteristics than independent groups as participants partake in both conditions.
What is meant by a matched pairs design?
A form of independent groups design where the experimental and control participants are deliberately similar. e.g. there is a balance between gender and IQ levels in each group/condition. Participants are matched on specific qualities.
What are the strengths of using a matched pairs design in research?
No order effects as there are different participants in each condition.
Reduced chance of participant variables as participants are matched on specific qualities, allowing for comparison.
What are the limitations of using a matched pairs design in research?
Matching is difficult and time-consuming. It is impossible to match all participant variables.
Larger sample needed than repeated measures.
What is meant by the sampling frame?
A group/population that is identified when it is unrealistic to study the whole target population.
What is opportunity sampling?
A sampling technique where participants are selected at the researcher’s convenience without knowing any details about the sample in advance. e.g. picking people who were there at the time, in your specific location.
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Easy and convenient.
Requires little planning.
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
May not be representative of the entire target population, meaning results cannot be generalised.
There may be researcher bias, e.g. women are more likely to approach other women.
What is self-selected sampling?
A sampling technique where participants volunteer (select themselves) for research. e.g. they come forward/respond to the psychologist after reading an advertisement in a newspaper or on a notice board.
What are the strengths of self-selected sampling?
Participants are willing to volunteer to take part, meaning they give consent which makes it more ethical.
There is less researcher bias as they do not select the participants themselves.
Reaches a wide audience.
What are the weaknesses of self-selected sampling?
Volunteers tend to be more interested and motivated to take part so perform differently to randomly selected participants. There are similar personalities amongst participants.
Only people who see the advert will be able to volunteer. Sample will not be truly representative.
What is random sampling?
A sampling technique where participants are selected from the sampling frame, and everyone has an equal chance of being selected. e.g. Names are pulled out of a hat, or a computer is used to randomly select participants.
What are the strengths of random sampling?
No researcher bias as the participants are randomly selected.
Could produce a more representative sample.
All members have an equal chance of being selected as it is random.
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
May end up not being representative as the sample is selected due to chance.
More time-consuming than other sampling methods, e.g. self-selected.
What is systematic sampling?
A sampling technique where every nth person on a list is selected by the researcher. e.g. every 3rd house on a street, or 5th person on a register.
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
Unbiased because the list is random and there is no influence of the researcher.
Sample is more likely to be representative of the population, allowing for easy comparison between participants.
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
Every nth number may not consent to the study which means that selection has to be done again.
While systematic sampling uses a random starting point, it does not provide the same level of randomness as other sampling methods such as random sampling.
What is stratified sampling?
Selecting participants in proportion to their frequency in the target population. Subgroups in the target population are identified and participants are selected at random for the sample in the same proportion.
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
It is the most representative method of sampling.
Most representative of target population as all subgroups are represented so we can generalise the results.
Unbiased as the participants are selected at random.
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
Time-consuming as there are many things that have to be done in order to establish this sampling, such as finding participants, working out the subgroups etc.
What is quota sampling?
The same process as stratified (subgroups identified) BUT the researcher chooses (using opportunity sampling) who becomes part of the sample for each subgroup.
What are the strengths of quota sampling?
Most representative of the target population as all subgroups are represented so we can generalise the results.
What are the weaknesses of quota sampling?
Researcher bias as the researcher is choosing who to ask to join the study.
Time-consuming as there are many things that have to be done in order to establish this sampling, such as finding participants, working out the subgroups etc.
What is snowball sampling?
A sampling technique where participants are initially recruited by the psychologist and then those participants recruit further participants from people they know, therefore the sample group appears to ‘snowball’.
What are the strengths of snowball sampling?
Enables the researcher to locate groups that may be difficult to access.
What are the weaknesses of snowball sampling?
Not representative because all the participants know each other in some way, that may mean they are similar in some way.
What is meant by an ethics committee?
The board that is in place to ensure that proposed research meets the standards of the current ethical codes of conduct and guidelines.
They are made up of people from various backgrounds, e.g. professors or researchers.
Research proposals are submitted and have to be accepted — if they are not then researchers may have to edit studies.
What is meant by ethical guidelines?
Provides a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results — they are published by professional bodies such as the BPS.
What is meant by privacy?
A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves.
How do we maintain privacy in research?
Observations should only be carried out in public places and interviews should not ask personal information. Gain retrospective consent after a covert observation if possible.
What are the limitations of maintaining privacy in research?
There is no universal agreement on what constitutes a public place - is a public toilet a public place?
What is meant by confidentiality?
Third parties should not be able to trace information back to individual participants. This is usually achieved through providing anonymity e.g. using participant numbers not names.
How do we maintain confidentiality in research?
Researchers should anonymise all participants with the use of codes/numbers, e.g. code names. Any data collected should not be easily accessible, it could be encrypted if online for example.
What are the limitations of maintaining confidentiality in research?
It is sometimes possible to work out who the participants are using the information provided, e.g. in the Little Albert study.
What is meant by deception?
Deliberately misleading or falsely informing participants about the nature of research, meaning that participants are unaware of the aims of the study.
How do we deal with deception in research?
The need for deception should be agreed by an ethics committee.
Participants must be fully debriefed after the study.
Participants should be offered the opportunity to withdraw their data and discuss any concerns.
What are the limitations of maintaining deception in research?
The ethics committee cannot always predict what harm may come from the deception before the study is conducted.
Sometimes a debrief isn't enough, participants may need counselling if the deception led to embarrassment.
What is meant by right to withdraw?
Participants understand that they can leave the study at any time and remove their data once the study is over.
How do we deal with right to withdraw in research?
Participants should be made aware before the study begins that they can leave at any time.
Any incentives will remain even if they decide to leave and should be reminded that they can withdraw their data after the study is completed.
What are the limitations of maintaining right to withdraw in research?
Participants may feel like they cannot withdraw out of fear they will mess the study up. Even when told otherwise, the use of payment may also make the participant feel like they cannot leave.
What is meant by informed consent?
Includes giving participants comprehensive information (in a form they can understand) so that they can make an informed choice about whether they wish to participate in a study.
How do we deal with informed consent in research?
Participants must be asked to formally indicate their agreement to take part. This should state in detail the nature and purpose of the study. If deception is involved, retrospective consent should be gained during the debrief.
What are the limitations of maintaining informed consent in research?
To give fully informed consent, the participant will be aware of the aim of the study (leading to demand characteristics).
Even if they give consent, this doesn't mean the participant really understands what they are required to do.
What is meant by protection from harm?
Participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects beyond what would be normal in day to day life.
How do we deal with protection from harm in research?
Studies should be designed so that participants come to no more harm than they would experience in everyday life. The study should be stopped if harm is suspected.
What are the limitations of maintaining protection from harm in research?
It can be difficult to predict if the participant will be harmed during research; researchers may not be aware that participants are being harmed and may only realise in retrospect.
What is a debrief?
A method which aims to ensure participants are aware of the true nature of the study (overcoming any deception). It should return the participant back to their original state.
How is a debrief conducted?
Inform participants of the purpose of the research.
Ensure no undue stress to the participants.
Ensure the participants leave in a 'frame of mind that is at least as sound as when they entered'.
Give the participants the right to withdraw their data and to see the finished report if they wish.
Provide an opportunity for questions.
Thank the participants for their contributions.
What is meant by reliability?
The extent to which a test produces consistent results.
What is meant by internal reliability?
The extent to which a test or measure is consistent within itself e.g. the use of a standardised instructions and procedure for all participants.
What is meant by external reliability?
The extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions/over time, e.g. if we repeated an IQ test, we would expect the same result on a different day.