social psychology

social psychology

the study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations—like how they're influenced by others, how they see themselves, and how they relate to groups.

norms

unwritten rules or expectations about how people should behave in a group or society. They guide what's seen as normal, acceptable, or appropriate.

Example: Saying “thank you” after someone helps you is a social norm.

roles

Expected behaviors based on who you are.

Example: A teacher is expected to lead the class, not just sit and listen.

zimbardo (standard Prison Experiment)

Zimbardo put college students in a fake prison—some were guards, some were prisoners.

The guards quickly became cruel, and prisoners became stressed or passive.

It showed how powerful roles and situations can influence behavior, even more than personality.

social schemas

mental shortcuts or “templates” we use to understand people and situations.

When you meet a doctor, your “doctor” schema might expect them to be smart, wear a white coat, and give advice.

attribution theory

how people explain the causes of their own and others' behavior. We attribute actions to internal factors (like personality) or external factors (like the situation).

Example: If someone fails a test, you might think it's because they didn’t study enough (internal) or because the test was too hard (external).

internal (dispositional) vs. external (situational) attribution

Internal (Dispositional) Attribution: Explaining behavior based on personal traits or characteristics.

Example: If a student aces a test, you might think they’re smart or hardworking (internal).

External (Situational) Attribution: Explaining behavior based on the environment or external factors.

Example: If someone is late, you might think traffic or bad weather caused the delay (external).

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the role of internal factors (like personality) and underestimate the role of external factors (like the situation) when explaining someone else's behavior.

Example: If someone cuts you off in traffic, you might think they’re rude or aggressive (internal) instead of considering they might be in a hurry due to an emergency (external).

just words phenomenon (bias)

the tendency to believe that the world is fair, and people get what they deserve. It leads to thinking that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people.

Example: If someone is going through a tough time, you might think they must have done something to deserve it, even if that's not the case.

actor - observer bias

tendency to attribute our own behaviors to external factors, but attribute others' behaviors to internal factors .

Example: If you’re late, you might blame traffic (external), but if someone else is late, you might think they’re disorganized (internal).

self serving bias

the tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (like skill) and our failures to external factors (like bad luck).

Example: If you get a good grade on a test, you think it’s because you studied hard (internal), but if you fail, you blame the test being unfair (external).

internal locus of control vs external locus of control

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that you control your own fate through your actions and decisions.

Example: If you succeed at work, you believe it’s because of your hard work and effort.

External Locus of Control: The belief that outside forces (like luck or fate) control your life.

Example: If you succeed at work, you think it’s because you got lucky or the circumstances were in your favor.

attitude

Attitude is how you feel about something—whether positive or negative.

involves three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioral (actions).

routes of persuasion : central vs peripheral

Central Route: Persuasion based on logical reasoning and facts.

Example: Choosing a phone because it has the best features.

Peripheral Route: Persuasion based on emotions, attractiveness, or superficial cues.

Example: Buying a phone because a celebrity endorsed it.

elaboration likelihood model

explains how people are persuaded through two routes: the central route (logical) and the peripheral route (emotional).

false consesus effect

the tendency to believe that others share our opinions, beliefs, or behaviors more than they actually do.

Example: If you love a certain TV show, you might assume most people do too, even if they don't.

halo effect

when you assume someone has other positive traits because you like one of their qualities.

Example: If you think someone is good-looking, you might also assume they’re kind or smart, even without knowing them well.

illusory correlation

tendency to see a relationship between two things even when no actual connection exists.

Example: Thinking people with glasses are more intelligent, even though there's no evidence to support that link.

cognitive dissonance (Leon Festinger)

the discomfort we feel when our beliefs or actions conflict, so we’re motivated to reduce the inconsistency.

Example: If you believe smoking is bad but continue to smoke, you might either quit smoking or convince yourself smoking isn’t that harmful to reduce the discomfort.

stereotypes

oversimplified beliefs about a group of people based on characteristics like race, gender, or age.

prejudice

a negative attitude or feeling toward someone based on their group (like race, gender, or religion), without knowing them personally.

Example: Believing someone is lazy just because of their ethnicity, even though it's not true.

scapegoat theory

suggests that people blame others for their problems or frustrations, often targeting a minority or less powerful group.

Example: During tough economic times, people may blame immigrants for job losses, even though they aren't the real cause.

discrimination

the unfair treatment of people based on their group membership, like race, gender, or age.

Example: Not hiring someone because of their ethnicity, even though they're qualified for the job.

in group and out group bias

In-group bias is the tendency to favor people in our own group over those in other groups.

Out-group bias is the tendency to view people outside our group more negatively or unfairly.

Example: You may favor your friends over strangers (in-group bias) and think people from another team are less skilled (out-group bias).

ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others.

conformity

adjusting your behavior or beliefs to match those of a group, often to fit in or avoid conflict.

Example: Wearing similar clothes as your friends because you want to be accepted in the group.

compliance

changing your behavior in response to a direct request from someone, even if you don't necessarily agree with it.

Example: Saying yes to a friend's request to help them move, even though you don’t want to.

social influence theory: normative and informational

Normative : when we conform to fit in with others or be accepted by the group.

Example: Laughing at a joke you don’t find funny just to fit in.

Informational : when we conform because we believe others have more information or are correct.

Example: Following a crowd during an emergency because you think they know what to do.

collectivist vs individualistic culture (differences in perception, behaviors, ect)

Collectivist culture values community over individual needs. People often define themselves based on their relationships and group.

Example: In countries like Japan, success is often seen as a collective achievement, and people prioritize group well-being.

Individualistic culture values independence and personal achievement. People focus on personal goals and define themselves by individual traits.

Example: In the U.S., personal success is often celebrated, and people are encouraged to stand out and pursue their own goals.

solomon asch

studied conformity. His experiment showed that people often agree with a group’s wrong answer to fit in, even when they know it's wrong.

obedience

following orders or instructions from an authority figure.

Example: A person following a boss’s instructions, even if they don’t agree with them.

Term

milgram

known for his famous obedience experiment, where participants were willing to administer what they believed were painful electric shocks to others, simply because an authority figure told them to.

Example: People continued to shock a person, even when they heard cries of pain, because the experimenter insisted they keep going.

foot in the door phenomenon

when people are more likely to agree to a large request after they've first agreed to a smaller one.

Example: If you agree to a small favor, like signing a petition, you're more likely to agree to a bigger request, like donating money

groupthink

when a group makes faulty decisions because members prioritize agreement over critical thinking.

Example: A team might agree on a risky plan just to avoid conflict, even though they have doubts about it.

group polarization

when discussion within a group leads to more extreme decisions or opinions than individuals would make alone.

Example: After talking with like-minded people, a group might become more strongly in favor of a certain political view.

social facilitation

the tendency to perform better on simple or well-practiced tasks when others are watching.

social loafing

the tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

evaluation apprehension

the fear of being judged by others, which can affect performance.

Example: You might feel nervous or perform poorly during a presentation because you're worried about how the audience will evaluate you.

Deindividuation

when people lose self-awareness and feel less accountable for their actions in a group, leading to behavior they might not usually do.

diffusion of responsibility

when individuals feel less personal responsibility to act in an emergency because others are present.

Example: In a crowd, if someone needs help, people might assume someone else will step in, so no one does anything.

risky shift phenomenon

when groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals would on their own.

Example: A group of friends might decide to take a dangerous shortcut while driving, even though individually they might not have made that choice.

bystander effect (john Darley and bibb latane)

when individuals are less likely to help someone in need when others are present, due to the diffusion of responsibility.

Example: In an emergency, people are less likely to intervene if they see others around, thinking someone else will help. This was studied by John Darley and Bibb Latané.

helping behavior

actions intended to benefit others

Example: Helping someone carry their groceries or volunteering at a charity.

altruism

selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behaviors without expecting anything in return.

Example: Donating money to a charity without any personal gain.

social reciprocity norm

the expectation that people will help those who have helped them, creating a cycle of mutual support.

Example: If someone helps you with a task, you’re likely to return the favor when they need help.

social responsibility norms

the expectations that people will help others who are in need, especially those who are unable to help themselves.

Example: Helping an elderly person cross the street because it's the right thing to do, even if you don’t know them.

person perception : mere exposure effect and self fulfilling prophecy

Mere exposure effect is the tendency to develop a more positive attitude toward something the more we're exposed to it.

Example: The more you hear a song, the more you might start liking it.

Self-fulfilling prophecy is when our beliefs or expectations about others influence their behavior to match those expectations.

Example: If you believe someone is shy, you might act distant, causing them to become even more withdrawn.