Psych validation T2 W4

What is classical conditioning

A form of learning where an existing reflex response is elicited by the repeated pairing of 2 unrelated stimuli

What is the NS

Neutral stimulus: stimulus that on its own does not elicit a particular response

What is the UCS:

Unconditioned stimulus: stimulus with the inherent ability to elicit a reflex response

What is the UCR:

Unconditioned response: the reflexive reaction to a specific unconditioned stimulus

What is the CS

Conditioned stimulus: reflex response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus as a result of learning

What is the CR

Conditioned response: reflexive reaction to a specific UCS

Mini key for terms:

NS = CS: Always becomes/is usually the same

UCR = CR: usually the same

UCS: triggers the initial learning; an independent event.

What is stimulus generalisation?

When a stimulus is similar to a conditioned stimulus and elicits the same response

E.g.: Fear of magpies - fear of all birds

What is stimulus discrimination

When a stimulus does not elicit the conditioned response because it differs significantly from the conditioned stimulus

E.g. fear of magpies, but no fear of pelicans

What is extinction?

When repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus on its own ceases to elicit a response.

There is no longer association between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

What is spontaneous recovery?

A sudden re-appearance of a previously extinct conditioned response after the unconditioned response has been absent for some time

What was the aim of Pavlov’s study?

Pavlov 1902: to investigate classical conditioning in dogs

What was the subjects and materials of the Pavlov, 1902 study?

• Subjects: dogs - exact number unspecified

• Materials: meat powder, metronome, and Pavlovian apparatus

What was the design for the Pavlov study?

IV: presentation of stimuli, (bell, food, or both simultaneously)

DV: whether the dog salivated and how much saliva was secreted

What was the procedure of Pavlov’s study?

1. Dogs placed in harness and tube inserted in their cheek to collect saliva. The bell is rung - checking that no saliva is produced and can be the NS

2. Dog is given meat powder (UCS), causing dog to salivate (UCR). Next the bell (NS) is rung, just before giving the dog meat powder. This was repeated, salivation occurring every time (UCR)

3. Now when the bell (CS) sounds salivation occurs (CR)

before conditioning:

NS: Bell

UCR: salivation

UCS: meat powder

—> after conditioning:

CS: bell

CR: salivation

Key findings of Pavlov’s study?

• Dogs could learn to associate neutral stimulus with a reflex response, leading to the neutral response developing into a conditioned response

Contributions of Pavlov’s study?

• Impacted understanding of learning by presenting classical conditioning as an undiscovered form of learning

  • His empirical study presented quantitative data that allowed further research and replication

• Study provided a link between physiological and psychological processes relating to the production of learnt behaviour

Criticisms/limitations of Pavlov’s study?

• Inability to generalise the results from the dogs in Pavlov’s study to humans

• The dogs were physically and psychologically harmed due to exposure of unpleasant stimuli (e.g. ammonia and acid)

What was the aim of the Little Albert experiment?

Watson and Rayner, 1920: to assess whether a child can be conditioned to feel fear through the simultaneous visual presentation of a white rat and the loud noise of a hammer hitting a metal bar.

If the fear response is elicited, the next aim is to determine whether emotional response can be extended to similar stimuli

What were the participants and materials for the Little Albert study

• Participants: 11 month old boy, named Albert

• Materials: a white rat, a metal pole, and a hammer

What was the design for the little albert study?

IV: exposure to various stimuli and the pairing of stimuli

DV: observed emotional and behavioural response

what was the procedure for the Little albert study?

1. Albert was seated and a white rat was placed in front of him, there was no elicited response = NS

2. Each time he went to touch the rat, a metal bar was struck with a hammer (UCS). Albert became fearful and cried at the noise (UCR)

3. Albert began crying (CR) when the rat (CS) was presented to him

4. Albert was then exposed to similar stimuli. A seal skin coat, a rabbit, and Santa Claus mask all elicited the same conditioned response (stimulus generalisation)

What are the key findings of the little albert study?

• Albert was conditioned to feel fear from the sight of the rat after multiple pairings of stimuli (loud noise and him reaching to the rat)

• Stimulus generalisation occurred because the seal skin coat, rabbit, and mask were similar to the rat

What were the contributions of the little albert study?

• Classical conditioning can be used to elicit a fear response. It led the way for research on phobias and treatment

• Showcased the importance of ethical guidelines

What were the criticisms/limitations of the little albert study?

• Albert’s mother gave permission but was not fully aware of the nature of the study - informed consent was not obtained

• Albert was psychologically harmed and if not severely traumatised, forced to have this fear forever.

What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning whereby the consequence of the behaviour determines whether it will be repeated or not

Reinforcers and punishers are key elements - positive or negative

What is the three phase model composed of?

1. Antecedent: internal and external conditions that are presented immediately prior to a behaviour.

2. Behaviour: observed behaviour resulting from the antecedent

3. Consequence: the outcome of the behaviour

 

Reinforcement and punishment, negative and positive definitions

• Positive: addition of a stimulus

• Negative: removal of a stimulus

• Reinforcement: consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating

• Punishment: consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour repeating

What are the types of operant conditioning?

• Positive reinforcement: addition of stimuli that increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

• Negative reinforcement: removal of stimuli that increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated

• Positive punishment: addition of stimuli that decreases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated

• Negative punishment: removal of stimuli that decreases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated

What are the schedules of reinforcement?

1. Continuous reinforcement: very effective, involves giving reinforcement every time the desired behaviour is produced

2. Partial reinforcement: used once a desired behaviour has been established

What are the two types of partial reinforcement?

Fixed/variable and interval/ratio

What was the aim of the Law of Effect study?

Thorndike, 1898, to examine the influence reinforcement had on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box to reach food

What were the subjects and materials for the Law of effect study?

• Subjects: 13 cats

• Materials: puzzle boxes, food for the cats, and a clock for timekeeping

What was the design for the law of effect study?

IV: number of times the cats were placed in the puzzle box

DV: length of time the cats took to escape the box

What was the procedure for the law of effect study?

1. Hungry cat was placed in a puzzle box and a fish was placed near the box

2. The boxes all had different methods in which the door could be unlocked

3. The time it took for the cat to trigger the release and exit the box was recorded

4. This was repeated and multiple puzzle boxes were used

What were the key findings for the law of effect study?

• The cats initially used trial and error. Once placed back in the box they used the lever = operant conditioning = positive reinforcement

• Time to escape was quicker on their second turn

What were the contributions of the law of effect study?

• Contributed to the understanding and foundation on which theorists built of operant conditioning

• Skinner’s work with pigeons (and other animals) was developed by Thorndike’s (1898) findings

What were the criticisms/limitations of the law of effect study?

• Against animal ethics - repeated placing of hungry cats in a puzzle box

• Cannot be generalised to humans as it is based on animal trial and error - humans possess more sophisticated cognitive abilities

What is the aim of skinner’s box?

Skinner, 1948, to demonstrate the process of operant conditioning on pigeons

What were the subjects and materials of skinner’s box?

• Subjects: 8 pigeons

• Materials: experimental cage, food hopper, and bird feed

What was the design for skinner’s box?

IV: time interval that food was released in

DV: observed behaviour of pigeons

What was the procedure for skinner’s box?

1. Pigeons are deprived of food in the lead up to the study. They are placed in an experimental cage for a few minutes per day. A timer is programmed to present food via a hopper - the interval could be manipulated by the researcher

2. The length of time the hopper was lowered was always 5 seconds (Fixed interval schedule)

What were the key findings of skinner’s box?

• Operant conditioning was observed in 6/8 pigeons - the 6 learnt a unique behaviour

• Shorter intervals led to more effective reinforcement

• There was no cause and effect relationship

What were the contributions of the skinner box study?

• Animals can develop superstitious behaviours similar to humans

• A cause and effect relationship is not required for conditioned behaviour

What are the criticisms/limitations of the skinner box study?

• Pigeons were mistreated and harmed, weighing 25% less than originally, refinement?

• Cannot generalise results to humans - different cognitive and social characteristics

Compare operant and classical conditioning

What is observational learning?

Bandura, 1977

Where the learner watches a model, notices the consequences and decides whether they will imitate the behaviour

• E.g. children watching their parents driving, etc.

• Model: sets an example of the behaviour

• Learner: imitates and observes the model

What are the 5 mediating processes required in observational learning?

• Attention

• Retention

• Reproduction

• Motivation

• Reinforcement

What is attention?

Attention must be paid to the model’s behaviour and its consequence (cognitive aspect of observational learning)

• Learner has to find model interesting or similar to themselves - the more likely it will be that they attend to their behaviour

What is retention?

The learnt behaviour must be stored in the memory as a mental representation

• Relies on their cognitive ability and rehearsal strategies (utilization of memory strategies).

What is reproduction?

The learner needs to have the physical and cognitive abilities to reproduce the behaviour

• In this step no behaviour is reproduced, just the possibility

What is motivation?

The learner requires an incentive and reason for repeating the modeled behaviour

What is reinforcement?

If the learner expects to be reinforced they will reproduce the behaviour. However, if the learner expects to be punished, they will not reproduce the behaviour

What is vicarious reinforcement?

It involves positive consequences received by the model, increasing the likelihood that the learner will imitate the behaviour

However negative consequences received by the model will decrease the likelihood that the learner will imitate the behaviour

• Positive vr = increase in behaviour

• Negative vr = decrease in behaviour

Occurs after the 5 mediating processes

What are the strengths of observational learning theory?

• Some situations do not suit trial and error, the only effective learning is through observation

• There is empirical evidence to support the theory -e.g. Bobo Doll experiment

What are the limitations of observational learning theory?

• Ignores the biological processes and their effect on behaviour and learning

• The theory does not account for all behaviours performed

What is the application of observational learning theory?

• Teachers can utilise social learning theory in classroom environments to shape students behaviours into desirable ones.

What was the aim of the bobo doll study?

Bandura, Ross, and Ross, 1961

To determine whether children who observe an adult behaving aggressively will imitate the aggressive behaviour

What were the participants and materials for the bobo doll study?

• Participants: 36 boys and 36 girls between 3-4 years old - selected via convenience sampling from a childcare centre at Stanford University

• Materials: a bobo doll, craft items, mallet with peg board, dart gun, tea set, a behaviour checklist, and a clock

What was the design for the bobo doll experiment?

IV: Exposure of aggressive adult models vs non-aggressive adult models

DV: Observed aggressive behaviour in children

What is the procedure of the bobo doll study?

1. Informed consent was obtained and children randomly allocated into 3 groups (aggressive, non-aggressive and control)

2. Children in aggressive model were exposed to an adult behaving aggressively with the Bobo doll. The adult in the non-aggressive group played with other toys instead of the Bobo doll

3. After 10 minutes of exposure, the child was taken in a second room with desirable toys. They were removed from the room shortly after, causing aggressive arousal

4. The third experimental room contained toys including the Bobo doll, a dart gun, a mallet with peg board, set of tea, ball, and bears

5. Each child was observed for 20 minutes through a one-way mirror. They were scored against a set of criteria

What were the key findings of the bobo doll experiment?

• Children who observed an aggressive adult model were more likely to mimic the aggressive behaviour. These results supported Bandura’s social learning theory

• The boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour than the girls, however there were similar levels of aggression (verbal) imitated across genders

• Higher rate of aggression was observed in children who watched the same-sex model as opposed to children who watched an opposite sex model

What were the contributions of the bobo doll experiment?

• TV sets became popular and research began on the effect of violence shown on TV and aggression in children

• Bandura’s study was unique as it showcased that behaviour will still be modelled in a different situation from what was originally observed

What were the criticisms/limitations of the bobo doll experiment?

• It has low validity as it was performed in a lab setting and doesn’t reflect real life scenarios

• Children in the aggressive model group may have never witnessed aggressive behaviour before - causing distress

Observational learning vs operant conditioning

What is systematic desensitisation?

A type of therapy that combines relaxation techniques with gradual exposure to overcome a phobia

• Phobias tend to form through the process of classical conditioning whereby the conditioned response is fear

What is a phobia?

An intense and irrational fear to an object/situation that continues over time

What is the first step of systematic desensitisation being successful?

1. The therapist and client create a fear hierarchy which is created from least distressing behaviours/thoughts to the most distressing.

What is the second step of systematic desensitisation being successful?

2. Client is taught relaxation techniques (e.g. deep breathing, guided imagery, and progressive muscle relaxation)

What is the third step of systematic desensitisation being successful?

3. Client is exposed to the stimuli that progressively gets more threatening (fear hierarchy). At the same time the client uses their chosen relaxation technique to keep calm

• Exposure can be imagined or in real life

• Virtual reality can also be used - e.g. for fear of rollercoasters

What is the fourth step of systematic desensitisation being successful?

4. When the client can manage the fear stage and be relaxed at the same time, they can progress in the fear hierarchy. If the client feels anxious/scared they must stop and start from stage 1.

what are the strengths of systematic desensitisation?

• Eliminates practical issues through the use of visualisation

• Continuation is likely to occur as clients have control

what are the limitations of systematic desensitisation?

• Barriers for people who cannot visualise

• The underlying cause of the phobia is not addressed

What is a token economy?

A behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning principals that promote a desired behaviour - using positive reinforcement

What are the two types of reinforcers

• Secondary: the symbolic token used to motivate behaviour

• Primary: the tangible reward

What are the strengths of a token economy?

• It is versatile and customisable for different settings and contexts

• It has high transparency and explicitly describes the desired behaviour

What are the limitations of a token economy?

• The behaviour relies on extrinsic motivation, once the token economy is removed, the behaviour is likely to cease

• Risk of the excitement/motivation for reward to reduce