AP psych unit 1

adoption studies

Studies involving children raised by non-biological parents to assess the influence of environment versus heredity.

environment

The external factors influencing an individual’s development

eugenics

The belief or practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population by selective breeding or other forms of genetic manipulation.

evolutionary perspective

An approach in psychology that explains human behavior in terms of adaptive value for survival and reproduction.

family studies

Studies that assess the degree of resemblance between family members for traits to examine genetic influences.

genetic predisposition

An inherited genetic pattern that makes an individual more likely to develop a certain trait or disorder.

heredity

The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring.

Nature-Nurture issue

The debate concerning the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and the environment (nurture) to an individual's traits and behaviors.

natural selection

The process through which traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed down more frequently.

twin studies

Research comparing the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to investigate genetic and environmental influences.

1.2 Overview of the Nervous System

central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; responsible for processing information and controlling bodily functions.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The network of nerves outside the central nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that activates the "fight or flight" response during stress.

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that conserves energy and promotes the "rest and digest" response.

somatic nervous system

The division of the PNS responsible for voluntary control of muscles and sensory information.

nervous system

The network of cells and neurons that coordinates bodily functions and processes information.

1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing

Neural Firing

Action potential

The electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron

All-or-nothing principle

The concept that a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all.

Axon

The long

Dendrites

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Depolarization

The change in a neuron's membrane potential

Glial cells

Support cells in the nervous system that provide structural support and nourishment to neurons.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons and process information within the CNS.

Motor neurons

Neurons that transmit impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands.

Multiple sclerosis

A disease that affects the myelin sheath of neurons

Myasthenia gravis

A neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness due to insufficient acetylcholine.

Myelin sheath

The fatty coating around axons that speeds up neural transmission.

Nerves

Bundles of axons from neurons that carry signals throughout the body.

Neural transmission

The process by which electrical impulses are transmitted along the axon and across synapses to other neurons.

Neuron

A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system.

Reflex

An automatic

Reflex arc

The pathway that a reflex follows

Refractory period

The recovery time during which a neuron cannot fire after an action potential.

Resting potential

The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane when it is not firing an action potential.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after transmission.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry sensory information from the body to the CNS.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

NTMs

Hormones

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in learning

Adrenaline/Epinephrine

A hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the "fight or flight" response.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation

Endocrine system

The system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers and mood enhancers produced by the brain.

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger and appetite.

Glutamate

A neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by glands that regulate processes in the body.

Leptin

A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Oxytocin

A hormone that plays a role in social bonding

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that plays a role in pain perception.

Drugs

Addiction

The compulsive use of a substance despite negative consequences.

agonists

Substances that bind to receptors and mimic the effects of neurotransmitters.

Alcohol

A depressant drug that affects mood

Antagonists

Substances that block neurotransmitter receptors and inhibit their effects.

Caffeine

A stimulant that increases alertness and reduces fatigue.

Cocaine

A stimulant drug that increases dopamine levels

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow down body functions.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception and can lead to hallucinations.

Heroin

An opioid drug that produces intense euphoria but is highly addictive.

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug that affects mood

Opioids

Drugs that include both prescription pain relievers and illicit substances like heroin.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter brain function

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and elevate alertness and energy levels.

Tolerance

The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

The physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a drug is discontinued.

1.4 The Brain

Hindbrain

brain stem

The part of the brain that controls basic life functions like breathing and heartbeat.

cerebellum

The part of the brain involved in motor control and coordination.

medulla oblongata

The brainstem structure responsible for regulating vital functions like heart rate and breathing.

pons

The brainstem structure that regulates sleep

reticular formation

A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in regulating alertness

Limbic System

amygdala

The part of the brain involved in processing emotions

hippocampus

The brain structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.

hypothalamus

The part of the brain that regulates homeostasis

limbic system

A set of structures in the brain involved in emotion

pituitary gland

A gland that releases hormones regulating growth

reward center

A group of brain structures involved in the experience of pleasure and motivation.