Psychology Unit 1: History, Methods, Brain, and Consciousness

Flashcards covering introductory psychology history, theoretical perspectives, research methodology, neurobiology, and sleep and consciousness.

Who set up the first formal psychology laboratory, and when and where was it established?

Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

What is the formal definition of psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psychology emerged primarily from a merger of which two academic fields?

Physiology (the concrete study of the body and its physical workings) and philosophy (the abstract study of big-picture questions such as free will).

What percentage of psychologists actually work as practitioners in helping professions?

Approximately 50% of psychologists work as practitioners in helping professions as clinicians or therapists; the remaining 50% are employed in other areas such as schools, corporations, or legal settings.

What is the bystander effect, and why is it considered counterintuitive?

The bystander effect states that the more bystanders standing around, the less likely a victim is to receive help, contradicting the common-sense assumption that a larger crowd increases the likelihood of assistance.

What does it mean for a psychologist to be eclectic?

An eclectic psychologist uses a mixture of different theoretical perspectives rather than strictly adhering to a single approach.

How does Behaviorism explain human behavior?

Behaviorism asserts that behavior is driven by external environmental forces, relying heavily on concepts of reinforcement and punishment.

What are the core focuses of the Psychoanalytic theoretical perspective?

Psychoanalytic theory focuses on inner thoughts and feelings, early childhood experiences, and the influence of unconscious drives on behavior.

What is the primary premise of Humanistic psychology?

Humanistic psychology emphasizes innate goodness, positing that humans are born good and seek out experiences that foster self-betterment.

What is the central focus of Cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology focuses on thought, logical reasoning, and how mental processes and thinking change over time.

What does the Biological theoretical perspective emphasize to explain human actions?

The biological perspective looks at physical body makeup, including brain structures, chemical balances, and genetics.

What is the key difference between a theoretical perspective and a subfield in psychology?

A theoretical perspective represents an individual's viewpoint or level of explanation, while a subfield is a specialized area of practice or study (e.g., forensic or pediatric psychology).

What is the key distinction between a theory and a hypothesis?

A theory is a general set of principles proposed to explain how separate facts relate and is not directly testable due to having too many moving parts; a hypothesis is a specific, testable statement about a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables.

What are descriptive research methods, and what is their primary objective?

Descriptive research methods (such as surveys, case studies, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation) aim to gather information and describe behavior without testing a hypothesis.

What major advantage does experimental research have over all other research methods?

Experimental research is the only method capable of identifying cause-and-effect relationships due to its strict control of variables and random assignment.

What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

The independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome measured at the end of the study for all participants.

In an experiment, how does the experimental group differ from the control group?

The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not exposed to the independent variable and serves as a baseline comparison.

What is the difference between a between-subjects design and a within-subjects design?

In a between-subjects design, separate groups of participants are compared against each other; in a within-subjects design, the same participants are tested twice (e.g., pretest and posttest), making each participant their own control group.

What is a placebo, and why is it used in research?

A placebo is an inert substance (such as a sugar pill) given to a control group to isolate and control for the placebo effect, where participants improve simply because they believe they are receiving active treatment.

What is random assignment, and what purpose does it serve?

Random assignment ensures every participant has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group, helping evenly distribute participant traits (like baseline aggression) across groups.

What is the relationship between a population, a sample, and a representative sample?

A population is the entire group of interest, a sample is the subset selected to participate, and a representative sample is a subset that accurately mirrors the demographic makeup of the larger population.

What is experimenter bias, and how does a double-blind study eliminate it?

Experimenter bias occurs when researchers unintentionally perceive results that align with their expectations; a double-blind study prevents this by ensuring neither the participants nor the evaluating researchers know who received the active treatment or placebo.

What is a confounding variable?

A confounding variable is an unaccounted-for characteristic of participants or the environment (such as an unexpected shift in room temperature) that affects the variables being studied.

When do psychological researchers rely on correlational research?

Correlational research is used when manipulating variables in an experiment would be unethical (such as studying illicit drug use or high screen time in infants) or as a starting point to explore existing data.

What is the range of a correlation coefficient?

A correlation coefficient ranges from $-1$ to $+1$.

How do you evaluate the strength and direction of a correlation coefficient?

The numerical value (ignoring the sign) indicates strength (closer to $1.0$ or $-1.0$ is stronger), while the sign ($+$ or $-$) indicates direction.

What is the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation?

In a positive correlation, variables move in the same direction (both increase or decrease together); in a negative correlation, variables move in opposite directions (as one increases, the other decreases).

Why does correlation not equal causation?

A correlation demonstrates that two variables are related, but it cannot prove one causes the other because an unmeasured third variable (such as socioeconomic status) may drive the relationship.

What are the main structural parts of a neuron through which an electrical message travels?

A neural impulse enters through the dendrites, passes through the soma (cell body), travels down the axon, and arrives at the terminal buttons to release chemical neurotransmitters across the synapse.

What is the functional difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter signals?

Excitatory signals encourage a receiving neuron to fire an impulse, whereas inhibitory signals decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

How do agonists, antagonists, and reuptake blockers affect neurotransmitter functioning?

Agonists mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects, antagonists block or decrease neurotransmitter activity, and reuptake blockers prevent neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed, prolonging their action in the synaptic gap.

What is a split-brain operation, when is it performed, and what is its primary effect?

A split-brain operation involves severing the corpus callosum to treat severe epilepsy, preventing communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Where are the Somatosensory cortex, Motor cortex, Primary Visual cortex, and Auditory cortex located in the brain?

The Somatosensory cortex is in the Parietal Lobe; the Motor cortex is in the Frontal Lobe; the Primary Visual cortex is in the Occipital Lobe; and the Auditory cortex is in the Temporal Lobe.

What are the distinct functions of Broca's area and Wernicke's area?

Broca's area is responsible for speech production, while Wernicke's area is responsible for language comprehension.

What are the primary functions of the hippocampus, cerebellum, medulla, pons, amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus?

Hippocampus manages memory formation; Cerebellum controls balance and motor coordination; Medulla regulates vital autonomic functions like heart rate and breathing; Pons regulates sleep and arousal; Amygdala processes emotions like fear; Thalamus relays sensory signals; and Hypothalamus regulates drive states like hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

What is a circadian rhythm, and how can light therapy affect it?

A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour internal biological clock regulated by light exposure; light therapy works by using bright light exposure to reset or realign disrupted circadian rhythms.

How do REM and nonREM sleep differ regarding physiological arousal and dream content?

REM sleep features rapid eye movements, high brain activity, muscle paralysis, and vivid narrative dreams; nonREM sleep features slower physiological activity, lack of muscle paralysis, and less vivid or more logical dream thoughts.

How do nightmares differ from night terrors?

Nightmares occur during REM sleep and are memorable scary dreams, whereas night terrors occur during deep nonREM sleep, causing intense physical panic and sudden awakening with little or no recall of the event.

According to Sigmund Freud, what is the difference between manifest content and latent content in dreams?

Manifest content is the conscious, literal storyline and imagery of a dream, while latent content is the underlying, symbolic psychological meaning of the dream.

What are the defining characteristics of sleep apnea, insomnia, somnambulism, narcolepsy, and cataplexy?

Sleep apnea involves temporary cessation of breathing during sleep; Insomnia is persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep; Somnambulism is sleepwalking; Narcolepsy causes sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks; and Cataplexy is sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotion.

What is the difference between physiological dependence and psychological dependence?

Physiological dependence involves bodily tolerance and physical withdrawal symptoms when drug use stops; psychological dependence involves emotional and mental cravings for a drug without physical withdrawal.

What general conclusion does psychological research reach regarding the efficacy of hypnosis?

Hypnosis can be effective for pain management and therapeutic relaxation in susceptible individuals, but it cannot force people to act against their will or recall lost memories with complete accuracy.