Psychology Fundamentals: History, Biological Perspective, Sensation & Perception, and Consciousness

Practice flashcards covering key historical figures, research methods, neurobiology, sensory processes, and consciousness concepts based on lecture notes.

What is the formal definition of psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What event in 1879 established psychology as a formal scientific discipline?

Wilhelm Wundt opened the first formal psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

Who is associated with the school of structuralism in psychology?

Edward Titchener.

How do structuralism and functionalism differ in their core focus?

Structuralism focuses on what the mind is made of (its structure), whereas functionalism focuses on what the mind does and how it helps us adapt.

Who was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology?

Margaret Floy Washburn in 1894.

Who was denied a PhD from Harvard because of her gender, but became the first woman APA president in 1905?

Mary Whiton Calkins.

Who was the first Black American to earn a PhD in psychology?

Francis Cecil Sumner in 1920.

What central concept defines Gestalt psychology?

Focuses on the perception of patterns and whole figures, summarized by the idea that 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.'

What key technique did Mary Cover Jones' Little Peter study introduce to behaviorism?

Counterconditioning.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

A theory is a broad/general explanation, whereas a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

What is the difference between random selection and random assignment?

Random selection is randomly choosing participants from a population to form a sample, while random assignment is randomly placing participants into experimental or control groups.

What is the difference between a single-blind study and a double-blind study?

In a single-blind study, participants do not know their group assignment; in a double-blind study, neither the participants nor the experimenter interacting with them know the group assignments.

What is the pathway of a neural signal within a single neuron?

Dendrites $\rightarrow$ soma $\rightarrow$ axon $\rightarrow$ axon terminals.

What are the typical voltages for a neuron's resting potential and threshold?

Resting potential is about $-70\,\text{mV}$ and threshold is about $-55\,\text{mV}$.

Which ion rushes into the cell during depolarization, and which ion rushes out during resetting?

Sodium ($\text{Na}^+$) rushes IN during depolarization; potassium ($\text{K}^+$) rushes OUT during resetting.

Which glial cells produce myelin in the Central Nervous System (CNS) versus the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the CNS, while Schwann cells produce myelin in the PNS. sec in pen

What are the primary functions of GABA and glutamate?

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter (acts like the brain's brake), while glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter (acts like the brain's gas). BA=BRAKE

What are the roles and locations of Broca's area and Wernicke's area?

Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and controls speech/language production; Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe and controls language comprehension. B+P producing burps

What are the primary roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

The sympathetic nervous system activates the body during stress/action ('fight or flight'), while the parasympathetic nervous system calms and restores the body ('rest and digest').

How do fMRI and EEG compare in terms of spatial and temporal resolution?

fMRI has better spatial detail ('WHERE'), while EEG has better temporal resolution ('WHEN').

What is the major exception to the general sensory pathway (Receptor $\rightarrow$ Cranial Nerve $\rightarrow$ Thalamus $\rightarrow$ Cortex)?

Olfaction (smell), which skips the thalamus.

What is the difference between habituation and sensory adaptation?

Habituation occurs when the brain stops attending to constant information, while sensory adaptation occurs when sensory receptors themselves become less responsive to an unchanging stimulus.

What are the three layers of cells in the retina in order of visual processing?

Photoreceptors $\rightarrow$ bipolar cells $\rightarrow$ ganglion cells.

What are the three ossicles in order, and what do they do?

Hammer, anvil, and stirrup; they amplify sound vibrations in the middle ear.

How do Place Theory and Frequency Theory explain pitch perception?

Place theory states pitch relates to which location on the cochlea is activated (especially moderate/high pitches); Frequency theory states pitch relates to the overall rate of vibration (especially lower pitches).

What is the difference between top-down processing and bottom-up processing?

Top-down processing uses prior knowledge and expectations to influence perception, whereas bottom-up processing builds perception directly from individual sensory details.

What structure and gland control the circadian rhythm and hormone release for sleep?

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus controls the pineal gland to release melatonin.

What is the progression of brain wave types from awake to deep sleep?

Beta waves $\rightarrow$ Alpha waves $\rightarrow$ Theta waves $\rightarrow$ Delta waves.

Why is REM sleep referred to as paradoxical sleep?

Because brain activity resembles wakefulness while major voluntary muscles are inhibited/immobilized.

What is the difference between manifest content and latent content in dream analysis?

Manifest content is the actual dream as experienced and remembered; latent content is the hidden or unconscious meaning of the dream.

What is the core premise of the activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming?

Random neural activity generated in the brainstem during REM sleep is synthesized by the cortex into a narrative dream story.

What are the two major theories of hypnosis?

Dissociation theory (consciousness splits into active awareness and a hidden observer) and social-cognitive theory (hypnotized people are fulfilling the expected social role).

What is the difference between physical dependence and psychological dependence on a drug?

Physical dependence involves the body needing the drug to function normally; psychological dependence involves believing the drug is needed for emotional or psychological well-being.

What reward pathway connects the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens in the brain?

The mesolimbic pathway.