AP EURO CH. 18

Enlightened Absolutism

1. A system in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers
2. Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria

Frederick William I (1713-1740)

1. Further developed the two major institutions—the army and the bureaucracy—that were the backbone of Prussia
2. promoted the evolution of Prussia's highly efficient civil bureaucracy by establishing the General Directory
-served as the chief administrative agent of the central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs
3. strove to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers
4. ensured a close bond between the nobility and the army and, in turn, the loyalty of the nobility to the absolute monarch
5. allowed and even encouraged men of non-noble birth to serve in important administrative posts

Frederick II of Prussia (1740-1786)

1. Known as Frederick the Great
2. embraced culture and literature
3. forced Empress Maria Theresa to cede Silesia to him, violating the Pragmatic Sanction
4. spent much of his reign fighting to save Prussia from destruction
5. kept his enthusiasm for Enlightenment culture strictly separated from a brutal concept of international politics
6. realized more humane policies for his subjects might strengthen the state
7. further developed the two major institutions—the army and the bureaucracy—that were the backbone of Prussia
8. was one of the best-educated and most cultured monarchs of the eighteenth century
9. well versed in Enlightenment thought and even invited Voltaire to live at his court for several years
10. His father had despised Frederick's intellectual interests and forced him to prepare for a career in ruling
11. He established a single code of laws for his territories that eliminated the use of torture except in treason and murder cases
12. granted limited freedom of speech and press as well as religious toleration—no difficult task since he had no strong religious convictions
-did exclude the Jews, levying special taxes on the Jewish subjects and barring them from civil service
13. increased agricultural productivity—he imported clover and potatoes from Western Europe and the iron plow, while draining swamps in the lower Oder Valley
14. too dependent on the Prussian nobility to interfere with it or with the hierarchical structure of Prussian society
15. took a great interest in military affairs and enlarged the Prussian army
16. seized the Austrian province of Silesia for Prussia
17. took advantage of the new empress to invade Austrian Silesia

Catherine the Great of Russia

1. Wife of Peter III
2. learned Russian and won the favor of the guard
3. When Peter was murdered by a faction of nobles, she emerged as autocrat of all Russia
4. intelligent woman who was familiar with the works of the philosophes
5. claimed that she wished to reform Russia along the lines of Enlightenment ideas, but she was always shrewd enough to realize that her success depended on the support of the palace guard and the gentry class from which it stemmed
6. questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and even advocated the principle of the equality of all people in the eyes of the law
7. her subsequent policies had the effect of strengthening the landholding class at the expense of all others, especially the Russian serfs
8. divided Russia into fifty provinces, each of which was in turn subdivided into districts ruled by officials chosen by the nobles
9. expanded Russia's territory westward into Poland and southward to the Black Sea

Peter III

1. Husband of Catherine the Great
2. was mentally unstable
3. was murdered by a group of Russian army officers
4. Whether or not Catherine was involved in the murder is unknown, but she did benefit by it as she then had the throne to herself
5. Withdrew from the Seven Year's War because he liked Frederick II of Prussia, This essentially stopped the war

Emelyan Pugachev (1726-1775)

1. An illiterate Cossack
2. succeeded in welding the disparate elements of discontent into a mass revolt
3. his rebellion spread across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River
4. won the support of many peasants when he issued a manifesto in July 1774 freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service
5. Encouraged by him to seize their landlords' estates, the peasants responded by killing more than fifteen hundred estate owners and their families
6. was captured, tortured, and executed

Louis XV (1715-1774)

1. decided to rule alone after the death of Fluery
2. was both lazy and weak, and ministers and mistresses soon began to influence the king, control the affairs of state, and undermine the prestige of the monarchy

Madame de Pompadour (1721-1764)

1. Was the mistress of King Louis XV of France. She was a trusted aide and advisory, a great patron of the arts, and a tremendous supporter of the Enlightenment
2. made important government decisions and gave advice on appointments and foreign policy

Louis XVI

1. Louis XV's twenty-year-old grandson
2. knew little about the operations of the French government and lacked the energy to deal decisively with state affairs

Marie Antoinette

1. Queen of France (as wife of Louis XVI)
2. a spoiled Austrian princess who devoted much of her time to court intrigues

George I(1714-1727)

1. the first Hanoverian king of great britain

George II(1727-1760)

1. king of great britain

George III (1760-1820)

1. Discontent over the electoral system, however, and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king
2. managed to avoid drastic change by appointing William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806), son of William Pitt the Elder, as prime minister in 1783

Robert Walpole (1676-1745)

1. the first, or "prime," minister of the House of Commons of Great Britain's Parliament
2. Although appointed initially by the king, through his period of leadership (1721-1742) he effectively established the modern pattern of parliamentary government
3. pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes

William Pitt the Elder

1. The Prime Minister of England during the French and Indian War
2. He increased the British troops and military supplies in the colonies, and this is why England won the war
3. dismissed in 1761 by the new king, George III
4. replaced by the king's favorite, Lord Bute
5. British fortunes were revived by the efforts of him
6. was convinced that the destruction of the French colonial empire was a necessary prerequisite for the creation of Britain's own colonial empire
7. decided to make a minimal effort in Europe while concentrating resources, especially the British navy, on the colonial war

William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806)

Appointed as prime minister in 1783

Lord Bute

1. British Prime Minister who raised taxation on poor and mid classes with duties and sales taxes
2. King George III's favorite

Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780)

1. resolved to reform her empire in preparation for the seemingly inevitable next conflict with rival Prussia
2. curtailed the role of the diets or provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration
3. remained staunchly Catholic and conservative and was not open to the philosophes' calls for wider reforms
4. made an alliance with Great Britain, which feared French hegemony over Continental affairs
5. refused to accept the loss of Silesia and prepared for its return by rebuilding her army while working diplomatically through her able foreign minister, Count Wenzel von Kaunitz, to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France

Joseph II (1780-1790)

1. Maria Theresa's successor
2. determined to make changes; at the same time, he carried on his mother's chief goal of enhancing Habsburg power within the monarchy and Europe
3. abolished serfdom and tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings
4. instituted a new penal code that abrogated the death penalty and established the principle of equality of all before the law
5. introduced drastic religious reforms as well, including complete religious toleration and restrictions on the Catholic Church
6. alienated the nobility by freeing the serfs and alienated the church by his attacks on the monastic establishment

Cardinal Fleury

1. Louis XIV's minister that caused France to pull back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded and the government promoted the growth of industry

Philip V

1. Under him, the laws, administrative institutions, and language of Castile were established in the other Spanish kingdoms, making the king of Castile truly the king of Spain

Charles III (1759-1788)

1. During his reign the Catholic Church was brought under royal control when the king banished the Jesuits and circumscribed the activities of the Inquisition
2. attempted to reduce the authority of the landed aristocrats by curbing the privileges of the great sheep ranchers

Marquis de Pombal (1750-1777)

1. Served as chief minister to a series of Portuguese kings
2. Temporarily revived the Portuguese Empire
3. secured his reputation after the devastating Lisbon earthquake of 1755 that destroyed eighty-five percent of the city's buildings, killing almost fifty thousand people

King Gustavus III

1. The division of the nobility into pro-French and pro-Russian factions eventually enabled him to reassert the power of the monarchy
2. proved to be one of the most enlightened monarchs of his age
3. established freedom of religion, speech, and press and instituted a new code of justice that eliminated the use of torture
4. his economic reforms smacked of laissez-faire: he reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, and encouraged trade and agriculture
5. In 1792, a group of nobles, incensed at these reforms and their loss of power, assassinated the king, but they proved unable to fully restore the rule of the aristocracy

Charles VI (1711-1740)

1. Unable to produce a male heir to the Austrian throne
-feared the consequences of the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa that he spent much of his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction, by which various European powers agreed to recognize his daughter as his legal heir
2. After his death, however, the Pragmatic Sanction was conveniently pushed aside, especially by Frederick II, who had recently succeeded to the throne of Prussia

Wenzel von Kaunitz

1. foreign minister who Maria Theresa sends to work on an alliance with France in the Seven Years' War

Robert Clive

1. This man was a British soldier who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Southern India and Bengal
2. He is credited with securing India, and the wealth that followed, for the British crown

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

1. An English innovator, and a true son of the Early Enlightenment
2. he adopted a critical attitude toward accepted ideas about farming and tried to develop better methods through empirical research
3. He was enthusiastic about using horses rather than slower-moving oxen, for plowing
4. He also advocated sowing seed with drilling equipment rather than scattering it by hand
-Drilling distributed seed in an even manner and at the proper depth

Richard Arkwright

1. English inventor and entrepreneur who became the wealthiest and most successful textile manufacturer of the first Industrial Revolution
2. He invented the water frame, a machine that, with minimal human supervision, could spin several threads at once.

Andrea Palladio

1. Born in 1508, he was greatly influenced by Renaissance philosophers and artists, and was made architectural advisor to the Vatican in 1570
2. His great architectural works include Villa Foscari, Teatro Olimpico, and Palazzo Chiericati, all in Italy

Cornelius Vermuyden (1595-1677)

1. A Dutch engineer who directed one large drainage project in Yorkshire and another in Cambridgeshire
2. In the Cambridge fens, he and his workers eventually reclaimed forty thousand acres which were then farmed intensively in the Dutch manner
3. Swampy wilderness was converted into thousands of acres of some of the best land in England

Charles Townshend

1. British Prime Minister
2. Influenced Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts

natural laws

1. a body of laws or specific principles held to be derived from nature and binding on all human societies even in the absence of written laws governing such matters

natural rights

1. certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled, including the right to life, liberty, and property; freedom of speech and religion; and equality before the law
2. equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness

The American Declaration of Independence

1. a statement of the reasons for the American colonies' break with Britain, approved by the Second Continental Congress in 1776
2. summarized the Enlightenment concept of natural rights in its opening paragraph: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."

Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

1. Conflict fought in Europe and its overseas colonies; in North America, known as the French and Indian War
2. could be seen, as some historians have argued, as the first world war
3. By far the greatest conflicts of this war took place in North America, where it was known as the French and Indian War

Hanoverians

1. a new dynasty in Britain after the last Stuart ruler, Queen Anne, died without an heir
2. the crown was offered to the Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover
3. the first Hanoverian king, George I, did not speak English and neither he nor George II had much familiarity with the British system, their chief ministers were allowed to handle Parliament

Glorious Revolution

1. A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange
2. Prevented absolutism without clearly inaugurating constitutional monarchy

House of Commons

1. one of the houses of Parliament including wealthy landowners and rich business leaders that represent the middle class and are elected to office
2. affirmed that "the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished."

Dutch Republic (Netherlands)

1. developed a large economic empire without a centralized monarchy
2. suffered a decline in economic prosperity
-Both local and national political affairs were dominated by the oligarchies that governed the Dutch Republic's towns

Junkers

1. Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism
2. owned large estates with many serfs, still played a dominating role in the Prussian state
3. held a complete monopoly over the officer corps of the Prussian army, which Frederick William passionately continued to expand
4. became imbued with a sense of service to the king or state

Vienna

1. center of the Habsburg monarchy
2. was filled with magnificent palaces and churches built in the Baroque style
3. became the music capital of Europe
4. found it difficult to provide common laws and a centralized administration for its people

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji

1. War between Turks and Russians in 1772 ended in this treaty
2. Catherine the Great secured by this a Black Sea (warm water) port for Russia. (Peter the Great had been unable to secure for effective use the port of Azov.)
3. Russia's success in this was an additional prompt to Frederick the Great of Prussia to practice diplomacy in partitioning Poland
4. Russia's expansive tendancies were alarming and it seemed preferable to arrange a deal rather than not be part carving into Poland

Treaty of Utrecht in 1713

1. Ended the War of Spanish Succession & recognized France's Philip V as King of Spain, but prohibited the unification of the French and Spanish monarchies; gave England profitable lands in North America from France
2. Taken the Italian territories and the Netherlands away from Spain, the latter now had fewer administrative problems and less drain on its already overtaxed economic resources

balance of power

1. a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another

reason of state

1. the principle that a nation should act on the basis of its long-term interests and not merely to further the dynastic interests of its ruling family

The War of the Austrian Succession

1. series of wars in which various European nations competed for power in Central Europe after the death of Hapsburg emperor Charles VI
2. Prussia seized Silesia and France occupied the Austrian Netherlands, but in the East, where France took Madras in India from the British, and in North America, where the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River
3. The French had returned Madras to Britain after the War, but jockeying for power continued as the French and British supported opposing native Indian princes

The peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

1. promised the return of all occupied territories except Silesia to their original owners
2. Prussia's refusal to return Silesia guaranteed another war, at least between the two hostile central European powers of Prussia and Austria.

Diplomatic Revolution

1. The time of changing alliances between the war of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, France allied with Austria and Russia, while Prussia is allied with Great Britain
2. led to another war, with three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, and North America

the Battle of Rossbach

1. in which Frederick the Great defeated Austria, France, and Russia during the 7 years' War
2. in Saxony in 1757

Peace of Hubertusburg (1763)

1. Ended issue of Austrian succession
2. Prussia was to continue in existence and kept Silesia
3. Frederick II's action of 1740 finally legalized
4. Was part of overall settlement of 1763

Great War for Empire (French and Indian War)

1. A war between British and French
2. caused tremendous debt for British and gained France's territories in America
3. fought in India and North America

Treaty of Paris in 1763

1. Ended French and Indian War
2. France lost Canada, land east of the Mississippi, to British, New Orleans and west of Mississippi to Spain
3. the French withdrew and left India to the British

The professional standing army

1. initiated in the seventeenth century
2. became a standard feature of eighteenth-century Europe
3. Especially noticeable was the increase in the size of armies, which paralleled the development of absolutist states
4. the French army grew from 190,000 to 300,000 men; the Prussian, from 83,000 to 200,000; the Austrian, from 108,000 to 282,000; and the Russian, from 130,000 to 290,000

Composition of Armies

1. Reflected the hierarchical structure of European society and the chasm between upper and lower classes
2. Officers came primarily from the landed aristocracy, which had for centuries regarded military activity as one of its major functions
3. Middle-class individuals could enter the middle ranks of the officer corps but were largely kept out of the higher ranks
4. Mostly composed of foreign troops (many from Switzerland or the petty German states)
5. Britain relied on mercenaries
6. Most troops in European armies, especially the French and Austrian, were natives who enlisted voluntarily for six-year terms
-Some were not exactly volunteers; often vagabonds and the unemployed were pressed into service
7. Rank-and-file soldiers came mostly from the lower classes of society
8. Some states, such as Prussia and Russia, conscripted able-bodied peasants but many states realized that this was counterproductive since they could not afford to waste their farmers

The maritime powers

1. Sea people built their power by controlling water routes, developing technology to cross the seas, and gaining wealth from trade and land claims
2. Britain and the Dutch Republic
3. regarded navies as more important than armies
4. British possessed 174 warships manned by 80,000 sailors
-Conditions on these ships were often poor. Diseases such as scurvy and yellow fever were rampant, and crews were frequently press-ganged into duty

Wet nurse

1. breast fed and care for child of upper class family, fully responsible for child

primogeniture

1. A system of inheritance in which the eldest son in a family received all of his father's land
2. The nobility remained powerful and owned land, while the 2nd and 3rd sons were forced to seek fortune elsewhere
-Many of them turned to the New World for their financial purposes and individual wealth.

infanticide

1. act of killing an infant

foundling homes

1. Orphanages set up in the 18th century
2. They commonly admitted children and were at their height a great example of Christian charity and good works done in a time of great inequality

illegitimacy

1. born of parents who are not married to each other; born out of wedlock

birth control

1. Any method used to reduce births

Coitus interruptus

1. remained the most commonly used form of birth control
2. pull out

"family economy"

1. Economic contributions of multiple members of a household that were necessary to the survival of the family
2. From the late nineteenth century into the twentieth, many working-class families depended on the wages of all family members, regardless of sex or age

Agricultural Revolution

1. A time when new inventions such as the seed drill and the steel plow made farming easier and faster
2. The production of food rose dramatically.

open-field system

1. system of farming that divided the land to be cultivated by the peasants of a given village into several large fields, which were in turn cut up into long, narrow strips-fields open and not enclosed into small plots by fences or hedges-large field as community-same pattern of plowing, sowing, and harvesting

animal manure

1. Dung and urine of animals used as a form of organic fertilizer

yeomen farmers

1. Enclosed the old open fields, combining many small holdings into larger units

Enclosure Acts

1. a series of United Kingdom Acts of Parliament which enclosed open fields and common land in the country, creating legal property rights to land that was previously considered common

Bank of England

1. created in 1694 to ensure a stable money supply and to lay the foundation for a network of lending institutions
2. Unlike other banks accustomed to receiving deposits and exchanging foreign currencies, this bank also made loans
3. In return for lending money to the government, the bank was allowed to issue paper "banknotes" backed by its credit
-These soon became negotiable and provided a paper substitute for gold and silver coins
4. the issuance of government bonds paying regular interest, backed by the Bank of England and the London financial community, created the notion of a public or "national debt" distinct from the monarch's personal debts
-meant that capital for financing larger armies and other government undertakings could be raised in ever-greater quantities

The French company under John Law

1. tied to his attempt to create a national bank and paper currency for France
2. Law's company and bank went bankrupt, leading to a loss of confidence in paper money that prevented the formation of a French national bank

Textiles

1. The first industry to be industrialized in the 18th century
2. Woolen cloth made up 75 percent of Britain's exports in the early part of the century
3. France, too, was a leader in the production of woolen cloth, and other major states emulated both France and Britain by encouraging the development of their own textile industries
4. master artisans used timeworn methods to turn out finished goods in their guild workshops
5. production was beginning to shift to the countryside in parts of Europe
6. In the countryside, these were produced by the "putting-out" or "domestic" system
7. A merchant-capitalist entrepreneur bought the raw materials, mostly wool and flax, and "put them out" to rural workers, who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth on simple looms

cottage industry

1. Capitalist entrepreneurs sold the finished product, made a profit, and used it to manufacture more
2. spinners and weavers did their work in their own cottages
3. women and children could spin while men wove on the looms, enabling rural people to earn incomes to supplement their pitiful wages as agricultural laborers
4. employed traditional methods of manufacturing and spread to many areas of rural Europe in the eighteenth century
5. significant changes in industrial production also began to occur in the second half of the century, pushed along by the introduction of cotton, originally imported from India

The flying shuttle

1. was developed by John Kay
2. its invention was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution
3. enabled the weaver of a loom to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand
4. sped up the process of weaving on a loom, thereby increasing the need for large quantities of yarn

water frame

1. 1780's; Richard Arkwright
2. powered by horse or water
3. turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels
4. led to development of mechanized looms

Mercantilist theory

1. Posited that a nation should acquire as much gold and silver as possible; that it should maintain a favorable balance of trade, or more exports than imports; and that the state should provide subsidies to manufacturers, grant monopolies to traders, build roads and canals, and impose high tariffs to limit imports

How was social status determined?

It was still largely determined not by wealth and economic standing but by the division into the traditional "orders" or "estates" determined by heredity

What was the largest social group?

The peasantry
-85 percent of Europe's population

free peasant

1. The commoners that farmed the land and were tradespeople; were free to do as they pleased
2. Rented land from the lord and often paid for services such as having their grain ground to flour, a tithe to the church and fees for basic needs
3. in Britain, northern Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, most of France, and some areas of western Germany, they were legally free, though not exempt from burdens
4. In France, 40 percent of them owned little or no land by 1789

Serfs

1. A person who lived on and farmed a lords land in feudal times
2. Russian peasants were not attached to the land but to the landlord and thus existed in a condition approaching slavery

Serfdom

1. A type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection but they are bound to the land and are not allowed to leave or to peruse their a new occupation
2. This was common in early Medeival Europe as well as in Russia until the mid 19th century

tenant farmers

1. A poor farmer who did not own land and had to live on and work the land of others, either for wages or a share of the crop they produced
2. Most owed tithes, often one-third of their crops

Tithes

1. money given to support the clergy
2. were intended for parish priests, in France only 10 percent of the priests received them

The diet of the peasants

1. Dark bread, made of roughly ground wheat and rye flour, remained the basic staple
2. drank water, wine, and beer and ate soups and gruel made of grains and vegetables
3. new foods of the eighteenth century, potatoes and American corn

The nobles

1. A member of a ruling family or one of high rank
2. constituted only 2 to 3 percent of the European population
3. played a dominating role in society
4. Being born as this automatically guaranteed a place at the top of the social order, with all the attendant special privileges and rights
5. The legal privileges included judgment by their peers, immunity from severe punishment, and exemption from many forms of taxation
6. In Poland until 1768, they even possessed the right of life or death over their serfs
7. highly conscious of their unique lifestyle, which set them apart from the rest of society
8. were expected to live off the yields of their estates
9. many were not averse to mercantile endeavors
10. Many were also involved in industries such as mining, metallurgy, and glassmaking
11. consumed enormous quantities of meat and fish accompanied by cheeses, nuts, and a variety of sweets
12. controlled much of the local government in their districts

the court of Louis XIV

1. provided a model for other European monarchs, who built palaces and encouraged the development of a court society as a center of culture
2. were peopled by members of the aristocracy whose income from rents or officeholding enabled them to participate in this lifestyle

Georgian style

1. An architectual style of London, mimicked in the colonies; characterized by symmetrical placement of windows and dormers and a spacious center hall flanked by two fireplaces
2. Only found on eastern seaboard
3. This style was greatly influenced by the classical serenity and sedateness of the sixteenth-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio, who had specialized in the design of country villas

Court of the Hanoverian kings

1. made little impact on the behavior of upper-class society

Georgian country house

1. combined elegance with domesticity, and its interior was often described as offering visual delight and utility along with the comfort of a home
2. fulfilled a new desire for greater privacy that was reflected in the growing separation between the lower and upper floors
3. The lower floors were devoted to public activities—dining, entertaining, and leisure
4. A central entrance hall provided the setting for the ceremonial arrival and departure of guests on formal occasions
5. From the hall, guests could proceed to a series of downstairs common rooms
6. The largest was the drawing room, which contained musical instruments and was used for dances or card games, a favorite pastime
7. Other common rooms included a formal dining room, informal breakfast room, library, study, gallery, billiard room, and conservatory
8. The entrance hall also featured a large staircase that led to the upstairs rooms, which consisted of bedrooms for husbands and wives, sons, and daughters
-These rooms were used not only for sleeping but also for private activities, such as playing for the children and sewing, writing, and reading for wives
9. "Going upstairs" literally meant leaving the company of others in the downstairs common rooms to be alone in the privacy of one's bedroom
10. originally reflected male interests
-the influence of women was increasingly evident by the second half of the century
11. become customary for the sexes to separate after dinner
12. women would exit to a "withdrawing room" for their own conversation

cosmopolitanism

1. the ideology that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a shared morality
2. characteristic of the high culture of the Enlightenment
3. reinforced by education in the Latin classics and the use of French as an international language

Townspeople

1. distinct minority of the total population, except in the Dutch Republic, Britain, and parts of Italy
2. about one-sixth of the French population lived in towns of 2,000 people or more

patrician oligarchies

1. Powerful groups that continued to control their communities by dominating town and city councils
2. They constituted a small minority of the urban population

petty bourgeoisie

1. lower middle class
2. made up of master artisans, shopkeepers, and small traders

laborers

1. working classes
2. below the petty bourgeoisie

guilds

1. Association of merchants or artisans who cooperated to protect their economic interests
2. became closed oligarchies as membership was restricted to the relatives of masters

Poverty

1. Inability to meet basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter
2. highly visible problem in the eighteenth century, both in cities and in the countryside

Pugachev's Rebellion

1. tried freeing all peasants from taxes and military service, he encouraged them to sieze their landlords' estates and killed
2. The rebellion collapsed and serfdom expanded

Pragmatic Sanction

1. This was the act passed by Charles VI that stated that Hapsburg possessions were never to be divided, in order to allow his daughter to be ruler

crop rotation

1. The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil

Fallow fields

1. Fields left unused in the belief that they will "regenerate" It's part of the medieval 3 field system
2. The practice doesn't work
3. The abandonment of this practice is part of the Agricultural Revolution