AP PSYCH Unit 0

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it-

"I knew it all along"

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

theory

well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations; using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

A statement of the exact procedures or measurements used to define research variables

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

the whole group that you want to study and describe

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience sample

choosing individuals who are readily available for study

sampling bias

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables (does not show causation)

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

dependent varibale

the outcome factor the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables --what you are measuring

mode

Measure of central tendency that uses most frequently occurring score.

mean

Average

median

A measure of center in a set of numerical data.

range

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Quantitative measures

Data that is in numbers

Qualitative measures

Data not recorded in numerical form (example, open ended answers from an interview)

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

informed consent

A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

debriefing

A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

sample

A part of the population you are studying.

positive correlation

two variable rise and fall together, such as height and weight

negative correlation

variables are related inversely, one goes up and the other goes down, such as inner speech and psychological distress

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation

measures of central tendency

refers to how the data measures the center of a set of data

positive skew

high outlier

negative skew

low outlier

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows one to generalize (T-tests, chi square, ANOVAS)

statistically significant

how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance (p-value)

effect sizes

A large effect size means that a research finding has practical significance, while a small effect size indicates limited practical applications.

ethics in research

informed consent

protection from harm/discomfort

maintain confidentiality

debriefing

peer review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

generalizablity

extent to which we can claim that our findings inform us about a group larger than we studied.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores/results to fall back (regress) toward their average.

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

Likert Scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire of attitudes, so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum; includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme. (Ex. strongly agree to strongly disagree)

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning.

Biological psychology

a branch of psychology that looks at mental health through a more medical lens, exploring the effect of neurological, chemical, and genetic causes and effects.

Socio-cultural psychology

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures and countries

Humanistic psychology

A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior.

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different age cohorts or subgroups are studied in the same way, and then compared with one another