research methods

Definition of variables

Any factor that can vary within an investigation. Used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing results in changes to another

Definition of independant variable

variable that is manipulated by the researcher, or changes naturally, so its effect on the DV can be measured

Definition of dependent variable

variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.

How do you test the effects of the Independent variable on the dependant variable?

Use different experimental conditions: control condition and experimental condition

What does control condition (eg: no music) do?

Control condition provides a baseline of behaviour without experimental treatment

no researcher manipulation of the IV

What does experimental condition (eg: music) do?

researcher manipulation to the IV to see if it has an effect on the DV

Definition of naturally occuring variables + eg

variables that cannot be changed by the researcher

eg: weather, age, gender, relationship status, neurodivergence, ethnicity, religion, occupation, income

Definition of extraneous variables

any variable apart from the iv that could have an effect on the dv. usually controlled (nuisance variable)

What 2 types of extraneous variables are there + def + eg

1. participant variables- individual differences between participants that may affect DV eg: age, personality, intelligence, concentration

2. situational variables- features of the experimental situation that may affect the DV eg: noise, weather, instructions, time of day

What must happen to extraneous variables

must be controlled or removed so dont effect results of study.

if not controlled or removed, they become confounding variables and affect the results of the study

Definition of confounding variable

An uncontrolled extraneous variable that affect results of study.

Definition of operationalisation

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

eg: when measuring memory, we would say "number of words accurately recalled in list of 20"

Definition of demand characteristics

When the participants guess the aim of the research or what is expected of them and change their behaviour as a result

-the clues can come from the researcher or the task

-threat to the research

What do participants who may have guessed the aim of the study do (demand characteristics)

try to please the researcher by giving what they think are “right” results “please-u effect”

try to annoy the researcher by giving what they think are “wrong” results - the “screw-u effect”

-compromise the validity of the research

-participant behaviour no longer natural → it is an extraneous variable that may effect DV

How can the researcher try to overcome demand characteristics

Single blind procedure - when participants are not told the true aims of the study

double blind procedure - when neither the participants nor the researcher carrying out the investigation know the true aims of the study

Doing anything that makes it difficult for the participant to guess the aim of the study eg:filler questions

What is investigator effects

The ways in which researchers unconsciously or consciously influence the results of the research (DV)

Eg if the investigator smiles more when interacting with participants, this might effect how participant acts

What is randomisation

the use of chance methods to reduce the effect of unconscious biases

an attempt to control investigator effects

control

What is standardisation

Using exactly the same procedures and instructions for all the participants in the study regardless of condition

an attempt to control extraneous variables

control

Definition of (research) aim

General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. It is the purpose of the study.

"To investigate" / "To see"

Definition of hypothesis

A clear, precise, testable statement that predicts the outcome of the study and the relationship between the variables to be investigated.

What are the 2 types of hypothesis + definition

1. Alternate/experimental hypothesis - Predict there will be difference or relationship and can be directional or non directional

1. Null hypothesis - predicts there will be no difference or relationship. “There will be no difference”

Features of directional (one-tailed) hypothesis

• states direction difference or relationship goes

  
  

• ‘less’ ‘more’ ‘higher’ ‘lower’

• used when there is prior research on the same topic

• eg: people who drink water will be less talkative than people who drink energy drinks

Features of non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis

• does not state the direction the difference or relationship goes

  
  

• "there will be a difference" "affects"

• no relevant prior research

• "the amount of energy drinks consumed affects how talkative someone is"

What are the 3 types of experimental design used in research

• Independent groups design

• Repeated measures design

• Matched pairs design

What is order effects

when a participant may perform better or worse in a condition because they’ve had practice or are tired

In a repeated measures design where a participant does both conditions, order effects are an issue

What is random allocation

When you randomly allocate participants to each condition

each participant has equal chance of being placed in any condition

reduce bias

attempt to control participant variables in independent groups design

control

What is counterbalancing

when in a repeated measures design, you make half of the participants do condition A first and the other half do condition B first

this cancels out any effects due to practice or fatigue

attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design

control

What are the 4 types of experiments

laboratory experiment

field experiment

natural experiment

quasi experiment

What are the types of self report techniques

questionnaires

interviews

types of questions in questionnaires

closed questions

open questions

types of interviews

structured interviews

unstructured interviews

semi structured interviews

What are the types of observation

Controlled observation

Naturalistic observation

covert observation

overt observation

Participant observation

non participant observation

behavioural categories

when a target behaviour being observed is broken up into more precise components that are observable and measurable

eg aggressive behaviour broken up into shouting, punching, swearing

What is mundane realism

extent to which an experiment or study accurately captures and represents real-world situations and everyday experiences

What are the different sampling methods

• random sampling

• systematic sampling

• stratified sampling

• opportunity sampling

• voluneteer sampling

Definition of target population

The group of people that the researchers are interested in finding out about and from which a sample is drawn

The target population is who you are hoping to generalise your finding to

what r samples + what should samples represent

group of people drawn from target population that should should be representative of the whole target population so findings can be generalised

Why do researchers use sampling techniques

not usually possible to test everyone in the target population so use sampling techniques to choose people who are representative of whole target population (sample)

If sample representative, can generalise the findings to the wider population

what is social desirability bias

participant wants to present themselves in positive light so is not truthful

What is a paradigm

Shared assumption and agreed methods within a scientific discipline eg: gravity

when does theory construction occur

Theory construction occurs when you observe and gather evidence

Definition of social desirability

When participants lie or behave unnaturally in order to reflect how they would like to be seen or to present themselves in a desirable way

What is BPS

British Psychological Society

has code of ethics including a set of ethical guidlines that researchers are obliged to follow (researchers must follow the BPS code of conduct)

if not followed, researcher may lose their jobs

implemeted by ethics comittees who use a cost-benefit approach to detrmine what is accapetable

What is informed consent

Participants being made aware exactly what they are going to be taking part in

Tell the participants the

• aims (brief)

• procedures

• right to withdraw

• what the data is used for

if participants under 16, need consent from a parent or guardian

What is the problem with informed consent

can create demand characterisitics (when the participants guess the aim of the research or what is expected of them and change their behaviour as a result)

Definition of deception

deliberatley misleading or witholding information from participants at any stage of the study

not obtained full consent

if decieved, participants must be fully debriefed and told aims of the study at the end

when the study doesnt cause harm, deception can be justified

What does it mean to debrief

when you inform the participant about the aim and details of the study at the end and explain what has been measured and what their data will be used for

inform them of their right to withdraw their data

What is protection from harm

when participants shouldnt be placed in any more harm than they would in their daily lives

shouold be protetced from physical and psychological harm

includes feeling embaressed/stressed/ hurt/anxiety/depression

provide counselling/treatments if psychological/physical harm occurs in the experiment

What is privacy and confidentiality

participants have the right to privacy

participants data should be kept confidential including where the study was conducted

confidentiality- right to have personal data protected

should refrain from using personal data:

• use initials/numbers instead of names

• remind the participants that their data will be protected and not shared

What is questionnaire

A set of questions that are designed to collect information about a topic

What does a questionnaire do

ask participants what they think or feel

They are written questions

Participants must write their answers

Often include some personal data eg age/gender so that answers can be compared

Usually start with shorter/ easier questions

Usually include open and closed questions which gather qualitative and quantitative data

Should have standardised instructions at the beginning of the questionnaire to tell participants how to fill it out

Strengths of questionnaires

Can collect information from large numbers or people quickly (cost effective)

Can access what people think directly

• experiments rely on guessing what people think by watching how they behave

• with questionnaires, you simply ask them

Weaknesses of questionnaires

• use of leading questions can affect data and reduce validity

• self report data - Risk of social desirability bias (when respondents answer in a way that they think makes them look better)

what are leading questions

Questions that suggest a particular answer

These are bad questions as they may influence participants responses and therefore lower validity

what are closed questions

fixed response questions

Offer the participants a limited set of responses to choose from

Only useful if you know the range of possible responses

Not useful if you want to capture new ideas or thoughts from the participants

what are rating scales/ likert scales

Rating scales are another type of closed question where participants are asked to rate an attitude/behaviour on a scale

likert scales are where participants have to circle a number to show how much they agree/disagree with a statement

Odd number allow the person to choose middle (neutral)

Even numbers force them to show some degree of opinion one way or another

advantages of closed questions

Produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse and compare

easy to test reliability of data

Disadvantages of closed questions

lacks validity due to fixed choices of answers which may not reflect how a participant really feels/tjinks

Lacks depth and richness as participants are unable to explain their responses so we don’t know why they feel the way that they do

What are open questions

questions that allow participants to state their attitudes and opinions in their own words

These are useful or you want to capture new ideas from your participants

Gives qualitative questions

Advantages of open questions

Produces qualitative data which provides rich detailed information

Increases validity as participants are not forced to give a participants are not forced to give a particular answer that might not reflect their beliefs

Disadvantages of open questions

Hard to to analyse data and compare results

Difficult to establish reliability

How to write a good questionnaire

• ANALYSIS

  questions need to be written so that they are easy to analyse.

  closed questions r easiest to analyse bur open questions represent participants real thoughts and behaviours but bc everyone could potentintiallt give a different wnde of, they are more difficult to analyse

• BIAS

  questions should be free of bias

• CLARITY

  questions should be clear and unambiguous

  don’t have double barrelled questions eg do you suffer from sickness AND headaches

What does correlations look at

Correlations look at the association or relationship between 2 existing variables

→ we call these variable CO-VARIABLES

→ correlations are plotted on a scatter graph as the data must be continuous

How does a positive correlation look like

How does negative correlation look like

strengths of correlation

They are useful as a preliminary tool for research

→ they can tell researchers if there is a relationship between 2 variables which researchers then may decide to investigate experimentally

They are relatively quick and cheap to carry out

→ this is because researchers are able to use existing data (secondary data) so they do not have to waste time and money on controlled experiments

Weaknesses of correlations

Correlations between 2 variables only tell us that there is a relationship between them, but does not tell us why

→ we cannot establish which variable may have cause the other variable (cause and effect)

Chance of “third variable problem”

→ this means that there is an untested and unaccounted for variable causing the relationship between the 2 co-variables that e are interested in

How to write a hypothesis for a correlation

All hypothesis must include both co-variables that the correlation is testing

Directional - MUST SAY there is a POSTIVE or NEGATIVE correlation “there is a positive/negative correlation between…”

Non directional - MUST SAY “ there will be a relationship”

Null hypothesis - MUST SAY “there will be no relationship”

DONT SAY DIFFERENCE

what is valdity

Validity is whether something has done what it is set out to do

What is internal validity

validity within the research setting and how well the research measures what it intends to measure

what does it mean for a study to have high internal validity

means that extraneous variants were successfully controlled

and the IV did produce the change in the DV

What does it mean for a study to have low internal validity

Means that extraneous variables were not successfully controlled

And the change in the dependant variable could have been due to something other than the IV

What is external validity

validity after the research has been conducted and how well the findings can be generalised beyond the experiment

what are the 3 types of external validity

• Ecological validity (if we can generlise findings to different places)

• Population validity (if we can generalise findings to different people)

• Temporal validity (if we can generalise findings to different times

what does it mean to have high external validity

Means the research is representative

Explain ecological validity

Type of external validity concerning generalising the findings to real life

A more natural setting should have ecological validity whereas a lab study would be artificial and so have lower ecological validity

→ however if the task used to measure the DV is not like real life, this is seen to have low ecological validity

Eg memorising a list of words

Explain temporal validity

“ Do the findings from a particular study or theory hold true over time “

Explain face validity

Does the test measure what it intends to measure on face value

ev does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety

Explain concurrent validity

does the measure produce results similar to existing measures for the same measure

Eg new anxiety test vs older anxiety test

What is reliability

measure of consistency

if a particular measurement is made twice and produces the same result, that measurement is relaible

What are pilot studies

small scale trial run of the actual investigation

Why do researchers conduct research

Contribute to society’s understanding

Find ways to improve society

Influence government decisions

What the is peer review process

After research is carried out a report is written

This is given to 2/3 experts in same field (eg attachment) → ‘peers’

they must be unknown to the researcher (anonymous)

The scrutinise the report→ check for quality, suggest improvements etc

What is single blind

participants are not told the aim of the expeirment or any other piece of information which might create expectiations. These are revealed at the end of the study to control confounding effects of demand characteristics

What is double blind

neither the participant or the researcher is aware of the aims of the investigation. Important features of drug trials - placebos.

What is quantitative data

Results that can be counted (numerical)

What is qualitative data

Non numerical data

strengths of quantitative data

• Simple to analyse

• Data is numerical so it can form objective conclusions

Strengths of qualitative data

• Richness of data loads of detail and broader scope

• People can fully report their feelings, thoughts and opinions

• Greater external validity

Weaknesses of qualitative data

• Difficult to analyse

• Conclusions rely on subjective interpretation

What are the 3 types of data

interval data

ordinal data

nominal data

What is interval data

data that is based on numerical scales where the units are of equal, precisely defined size e.g. time, temperature, weight.

What is ordinal data

data that is on a numerical scale where the results can be ordered in some way but the units are not of an equal, precisely defined size. eg results on a questionnaire. For example, if someone gives Psychology 8 out of 10 and another gives it 4 out of 10, it doesn't make sense to say that the first person likes Psychology twice as much

What is nominal data

Data that is in categories

what is distribution

What are the types of distribution

Explain normal distribution

• This is a classic bell-shaped curve.

• Many human characteristics are normally distributed, such as shoe size and intelligence. A normal distribution has a number of defining features:

• • The mean, median and mode are all in the exact mid-point

• • The distribution is symmetrical around the mid-point

• • The dispersion of scores or measurements either side of the midpoint is consistent and can be expressed in standard deviations.

What are inferential statistics

a type of statistical analysis that allow researchers to determine whether they have found a significant (if IV impact DV) or not significant result (if it was a fluke). They allow you to make inferences i.e. draw conclusions about the target population from a sample of data

what is the usual level of significance

p<0.05

means the probability that the observed effect occurred when there is no effect is equal to or less than 5% (down to chance)

“Less than 5% chance it was a fluke”

What are the 2 types of error

Type 1 error

Type 2 error