Local Social Science Test 2

Intragroup processes

When you describe what is going on inside a group, the dynamics, interactions, norms, roles, and relationships

Ex: Birthday party

Intergroup processes

What is going on between groups, the interactions between groups of people

Ex: Sports games, meetings of members of many nations (international summits)

In-group

A group whom you as a person belong

Out-group

A group that an individual does not identify with, a group that is distinct from another’s own group

Social identity

Part of an individuals self concept, a social category a person identifies with, as long as their is an in-group and out-group. Groups people together, and defines who is opposed to each other.

What are motivators for group affiliation?

1. Self-enhancement, if a group is good that means I am good

2. Identity certainty, assuaging existential dread around the fundamental question of “who am I”; tells you where you belong

3. Social and material support, you anticipate being helped in the future by members of your group as a result you have genuine gratitude people feel for having been helped before

Intergroup attitudes - Stereotypes

Intergroup processes, the attitudes and behaviors groups bestow upon other groups refers to what is going on between groups. 

1. Stereotyping, making an overgeneralization about a member of another group 

   1. Fueled by unfamiliarity, fear 

   2. Confirmation bias; once you have a set of expectations that members of different groups are mean, now you have that belief you will look for evidence to support your belief

Intergroup attitudes - Discrimination

Intergroup processes, the attitudes and behaviors groups bestow upon other groups refers to what is going on between groups. 

1. Discrimination between groups, this means when you treat people negatively based off of their group identity 

   1. There is ingroup favoritism, minimal group paradigm - giving your group members more resources over the outgroup 

Intergroup attitudes - Prejudice

Intergroup processes, the attitudes and behaviors groups bestow upon other groups refers to what is going on between groups. 

1. Prejudice is when you have a preference for a member of one group over another 

   1. Partisans give members of the other group a really low rating

   2. Would you want to marry a member of the different group? No

What are the minimal conditions necessary to produce discrimination against out-groups?

For there to be an in-group and an out-group

What motivates people to identify with groups?

Self-enhancement, identity certainty, and social and material support

1. Self enhancement: If the group is good that means I am good, strong motivation to belong to your groups

2. Identity certainty: Assuaging existential dread around the fundamental question: who am I? The group gives you an answer to that question, gives someone motivation things to care about and be invested in

Why are groups so harsh in their judgment and treatment of deviant in-group members?

Deviant behavior threatens norms, and gives the groups something to police

What is primarily motivating partisanship in the United States?

1. Negative partisanship, where you dislike the other party more than you like your own party

2. Prejudice against subgroups, studies show if you dislike people who tend to belong to republican or democrats you tend to also like the correlating party

   1. Ex: If you have prejudice against Black people, you tend to dislike democrats

How widespread is the support for political violence in the United States?

19% of people when polled answered that at least a little violence can be justified in a political context, 1-2% said they meant lethal violence is justified, when the 19% of people were asked about more concrete acts such as destruction of property, punching people, fistfights out of that 20% of people who said violence was justified a little 40% recounted their statements and said none of these are justified.

Who tends to be more supportive of political violence?

Extremist, they tend to have an aggressive personality, partisan identity, feel an outgroup threat, and believe in conspiracy theories

What do American partisans mis-perceive about their political opponents?

Partisans think that the other side is full of stereotypes

Republicans over estimate things like how many democrats are LGBTQ+ or making high income

Democrats over estimate that republicans are mostly white

What are some of the ways we know Americans are becoming more polarized?

The loss of split voting, Americans are starting to align their political identity with their racial identity

What are each of the different solutions that have been used to resolve intergroup conflict? Why does each one work?

1.Shared goals is often a solution to intergroup conflict, having a central goal brings people together and forces negotiation and exchanging favors between groups.

2. Interdependence, the dependence of two or more people or things on one another. This means that in order to achieve your goals, you need the other people to achieve them.

3.Common identity, shared identities reduce tension between subgroups, the American identity is an example; less conflict on July 4th having a shared identity tells you that you have things in common. 

4. Contact, positive contact between groups works, when you expose members of different groups to each other it helps reduce animosity as long as the contact is positive 

5. Equal status; having equal status helps reduce animosity and maintain harmony between both groups 

6. Support of legitimate authority figure, the poster of superman telling people to support your schoolmate no matter the identity they hold

Under what conditions does intergroup contact reduce prejudice?

1. When interactions are positive

2. Having equal status between groups

3. Having support of legitimate authorities

What is moral dumbfounding and what does it illustrate about how people arrive at their beliefs?

The inability to articulate reasons for a moral belief, an illustration of rationalization, when people start to attempt to justify their belief after the fact, even if their reasoning is weak or inconsistent

What is the problem of social order? Why are people often attached to maintaining social orders?

What makes groups persuasive? Roots of the soldier mindset, why compromise is hard and appeal to extreme ideology (what draws people to have this extreme of beliefs ex; the charging of the US capitol on July 6th)

What three things make up socioeconomic status?

1. Income

2. Education

3. Occupation

What are the sacred and the profane

Tells us what are ordinary problems and what are beyond the ordinary

1. The Sacred: refers to things that are considered special, holy or significant

2. The Profane: Ordinary, everyday, and non-sacred aspects of life

Research finds what things reduce animus between partisans? What are the consequences of this decline in animus?

1. Fans of the same sports team, the July 4th holiday,

2. Friends of another party

3. Cross party discussion

Reduced animosity causes less cue-taking, which means you are less likely to take on the shared belief of your party, there is less motivated reasoning meaning when debating an individual is insistent on reaching their point (this happens less)

What is classical liberalism?

A political tradition and branch of liberalism that advocates free market and civil liberties under the rule of law, emphasizing individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, freedom of speech. 

1. Opposed to a communist system 

2. Rule of law, when a judge orders you to do something you do it 

3. Free speech - Voltaire “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it,” 

What are each of the different solutions that have been used to resolve intergroup conflict? Why does each one work?

1. Shared goals - brings people together

2. Interdependence - in order to achieve your goals, you need each other

3. Common identity - American identity

4. Contact - positive

5. Equal status - reduced animosity

6. Support of legitimate authority figure

7. Deep canvassing

What are some of the ways we know Americans are becoming more polarized?

There is less ticket-splitting during elections, partisan media, more clear divide between large groups, more extreme division between political parties

What is moral dumbfounding and what does it illustrate about how people arrive at their beliefs?

The inability to articulate reasons for a moral belief, an illustration of rationalization. Ex: The brother and the sister having sex

Conventional canvassing

Efficient, brings talking points, focused on facts, effects last days or weeks

Deep Canvassing: persuading based on values rather than facts (works well)

Slow, listening, focused on values, effects last months or longer

Moral reframing

Presenting arguments in a way that would lead you to answer in a charge manner, they try to tie things that republicans respect to things like LGBTQ+ groups such as them in the military. Another example would be immigrants in the working world

When many social identities (race, geography, ideology, etc) fall along one consistent social division, this increases the likelihood of violence and civil unrest, why?

When a lot of social identities fall along one consistent social division, and loss for your group makes it feel very significant, ordinary politics develop a certain stakes to it

What rules do people use to assess whether any given distribution of resources is fair?

Equality: Each person should get the same amount, if you prioritize group cooperation, cohesion, harmony, respect and connection

Equity: The more you contribute the more you get, if you think performance, impersonal relations, and competition should be prioritized

Relative needs: You need more you get more, if you believe group/individual welfare should be prioritized

What king of comparisons do people make when assessing justice?

Internal comparisons; comparing yourself to where you were in the past or your self in the future

Local comparisons: Anoher person (usually similar)

Referential comparisons: Comparing your group to a different group

Sometimes to prevent resistance movements from gaining power, regimes will use a divide and conquer strategy

They would come into a place and pick an ethnic group to rule on their behalf. People who would otherwise try to resist colonialism, for example would then fight each other rather than the opposition. An example of this would be scapegoating in which the party responsible for pitting them against one another would leave

What enables social movements to foster social change? Be able to explain this process with reference to either the Civil Rights Movement or labor unions

Social movements which are composed of individuals and organizations that attempt to achieve social change, achieve this by shifting the power. Specifically labor unions have exclusive control over a valuable resource, which is their labor. They use their work as a bargaining chip and control access to their work

What enables social movements to foster social change, specifically civil rights movement

The civil rights movement was able to foster this change through group solidarity, discipline, and their strong network of members. The civil rights movement would find ways to get leverage over the United States government. The soviet union saw this and said that the US government didnt have the grounds to speak on freedom when they treated their own people the way the government was treating those in the civil rights movement

What are the arguments for inequality (Davis & Moore)

Felt that inequality was just a product of a functioning society. That a society could not actually function if there was true equality. Explaining things such as why some people hold more power than others and why they are also given more as a result

What are the arguments for inequality (Sandel)

Sandel claimed that meritocracy undermines social solidarity, and critiques meritocracy and its consequences. Argues that meritocracy falsely suggests that success is entirely earned, and ignored structural advantages like wealth, education and social connections that exist. Extreme inequality fosters resentment and division, as those on the top feel superior while those at the bottom feel excluded from economic and social opportunities

Dixiecrat wing of the Democratic Party

Refers to a member of the democratic party formed in 1948, these were a faction of southern democrats who opposed the civil rights platform of the national democratic party. They were primarily composed of white southerners who sought to preserve segregation and maintain the status quo of racial discrimination in the south. The democratic party eventually passes the freedom of slaves and they leave to the republican party

The Jim Crow, pre-Civil Rights South is widely considered authoritarian in nature, why?

There was voter suppression, through measures like literacy tests, poll taxes and outright intimidation making Black citizens unable to vote, and effectively silenced a major portion of the population. Southern leaders controlled much of the regional press, education, and political discourse, as long as a rigid social hierarchy that enforced a strict racial caste system. Authoritarian means favoring or enforcing strict obedience to authority at the expense of personal freedom

What are some demographic characteristics that distinguish the typical republican from the typical democrat

Republicans: White, rural, non-college educated, evangelical Christine,

Democrats: Racially diverse, Black, college educated, urban, non religious

What is the problem of social order?

Refers to the question of why there is order in society rather than chaos, it is in your individual self interest to steal from the grocery store, but people do not do these things and instead follow the rules.

Why are people often attached to maintaining social orders?

People become attached, it is the status quo and the way things are, they become attached because change is uncertain ex: you know everyone in town but then the social order is upended when unknown parties enter into that community and create instability

What are commitment and group solidarity?

A groups tendency to hold together. Aspects are that people do not want the disapproval of the other members, they do not want to deviate from the set of social norms. The regularities, routines, and rituals of everyday life matter to people. Commitment is the emotional investment in a group.

When and how does interdependence enhance group solidarity?

You feel strongly based on what the group represents to you and what in turn the group provides for you. You then feel inclined to provide back to the group.

What are the sacred and profane?

Tells us what are ordinary problems, and what are beyond the ordinary

Ex: Bible, American flag

Ex: Daily activities like eating lunch, casual conversations

Why are strict groups more successful than lax groups? Kanters

Did a study of utopian communes, successful communes increased the cost of exiting, if you leave you dont get any of the prior money you originally put into the communes. You give up autonomy in exchange for public support.

Commitment is rooted in emotion

Why are strict groups more successful than lax groups? Iannaccones

Weeding out free riders, an analysis of church characteristics, demanding correlated with regular attendance and donations. Sect members have less income and few family ties.

Group structure shapes commitment

Why are strict groups more successful than lax groups? Aronson and Mills

Cognitive Dissonance, experiment: a group of women being assigned to one of these groups in the 1950s

1. Read embarrassing texts

2. Read mildly embarrassing texts

3. Read nothing

Having to read these embarrassing texts, participants had greater liking for the group.

What is cooperation? How does social control enable cooperation

The process of individuals or groups working together towards a common goal, social control enables more cooperation with reputations, common identities (people tend to give their own group members more resources compared to a outgroup), and a sense of shared fate (if I cooperate and help, I will reap the benefits the group receives)

According to social scientists, what is the purpose of political parties?

1. Create and organized shared interest group (grow big groups to bring more people in with larger umbrellas)

2. Select a platform to build said group more

3. Nominate candidates, work to make that candidate win an election

4. Have that person make policies that works towards the groups needs

What is civil religion

Treating things in politics as if they have sacred importance in American society, it can create a sense of national unity such as pledging allegiance to the flag and the holiday July 4th

What is pluralistic ignorance?

When a norm is falsely believed to be endorsed by most people, “conformity run amok”. Ex: what others think of college students (they drink and party where on the contrary they do not)

Political conversation

If they don’t know for sure that the other person they are talking to shares the same opinion they tend to shy away from the subject intentionally

What is different about how the “deeply involved” engage with American politics compared to people who are less drawn to politics? Why are the deeply involved so influential? 

Krupnikov and Ryan 2023

The deeply involved are more effectively polarized, this is because they tend to hold stronger options. They are also more informed and actively pursue political interactions with others. more visible → Norms 

What do liberals believe? What about conservatives

Liberals: Harm and fairness, was someone cheated given less than they were due

Conservatives: Value loyalty, respect for authority and purity

What is political hobbyism?

A political hobbyist is the act of treating politics like sports, and by this I mean that these are people who treat politics as entertainment. These people will learn everything there is to know about politics even down to the most obscure random facts.

Be able to outline the predictions of balance theory. When are people in a state of cognitive balance vs. imbalance?

The Balance theory has three components… The perceiver (p), another person (o) and some other object/idea/event (x). When the perceiver (p) and another person (o) have something in common (x) , that is a positive denotation, two pluses which make another plus; meaning they are in a state of cognitive balance. If the perceiver (p) and another person (o) do not share (x) in common, that is a plus, another plus and a negative, which makes a negative meaning they are in cognitive imbalance. 

What does the “oil-spill” model describe?

Your ideology becomes related to once totally apolitical objects. If you have consistent beliefs to some set of policies, this will spill over to your beliefs outside of politics. Ex: Evangelical Christines at a time did not have any political affiliation, but now they are involved in abortion policies and other things. 

What kinds of political behavior do homogeneous social circles produce? How and why does this differ from heterogeneous (i.e., diverse) social circles?

They become more polarized between their party beliefs, and more extreme in their ideologies. Republicans move further to the right while democrats move to the left and there is a hollowing in the middle, and people with moderate positions start to disappear. 

What factors make it difficult for people to develop a more accurate understanding of the facts when they learn about politically-charged topics?

Motivated reasoning - people tend to seek out and believe evidence that confirms what they already think (confirmation bias)

Social pressures and group loyalty

Cognitive bias

There are some ways in which we know simply having more information does not lead people directly to the truth. Be able to point to one study or demonstration of this.

Klein discusses how simply having more information does not always lead people to the truth, particularly when it comes to politically charged issues. One key study he references is the Backfire Effect study, conducted by Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler, this study examined how people respond to factual corrections that contradict their political beliefs. They were shown misinformation, and then given correct information that disproved the misinformation and instead of changing their beliefs they doubled down, especially if their misinformation aligned with their political identity. People interpret and respond to information based on their identities. 

Racial threat theory has four basic steps. Be able to explain how each step fits into the theory

Racial prejudice which is individual and explicit, implicit bias which is individual and subtle, racial resentment which is individual and subtle, then systematic racism which is organizational and subtle. Racial prejudice is explicit attitudes that favors one group over another. Implicit bias is an unconscious cognitive preference that predicts discriminatory behavior. Racial resentment is the endorsement of negative moral stereotypes around minorities in America. 

What are the different concepts we examine under the broad banner of “racism”? Be able to define each of these and point to examples.

Racial prejudice which is individual and explicit, implicit bias which is individual and subtle, racial resentment which is individual and subtle, then systematic racism which is organizational and subtle. Racial prejudice is explicit attitudes that favors one group over another. Implicit bias is an unconscious cognitive preference that predicts discriminatory behavior. Racial resentment is the endorsement of negative moral stereotypes around minorities in America. 

What are the rough racial breakdowns of Republican and Democratic voters?

Black Americans vote in overwhelming numbers for the Democratic party, and historically the Republican party has had a predominantly white voter base. 

What do current demographic trends suggest about the future racial and ethnic makeup of the United States? What about the religious composition of the United States?

The United States is becoming “brown America”, it is predicted that by 2060, America's population will be made up of a majority of Black, and Hispanic people, making white people the minority. Additionally, it is becoming more common for when asked of their religious background, for people to say they are not religious. 

White voters respond uniquely to the changing demographic composition of the country. How do they respond?

They become threatened, white voters are more likely to affiliate themselves with their race more than ever, additionally their political identity more closely relates to their racial identity. 

Research has found attitudes about race have become more closely related to opinions on other political matters. When did this trend begin?

Racial attitudes have become increasingly more connected to opinions on political matters in recent years, in the past the Civil Rights Movement and the Voting Rights act let to a political realignment, where racial issues became more central to party identity, since then during the Obama era we see attitudes about race become one of the strongest predictors of partisanship. Klein argues that race has become one of the most important identifiers in American politics, for example the Democratic party shifted toward supporting racial equality and diversity (to gain support) led many white Americans, especially in the South to associate racial issues with the Democratic party. 

How much do views on race shape views on other social and political issues?

Views on race and opinions about racial politics have shaped people's attitudes on a absurd number of things such as the Affordable Health Care act, Barack Obama's dog, his is also shown in the book during the test done in a small town in boston where immigrants were put onto a train after assessing how locals felt about immigrants and after several days of there increased presence, riders had stronger options on the removal of immigrants.