PHIL 105

What is a fallacy in argumentation?

A defect in an argument that undermines its validity.

What distinguishes an informal fallacy from a formal fallacy?

An informal fallacy can only be identified by examining the content of the argument, while a formal fallacy is an error determined solely by its structure.

What is an example of an appeal to force fallacy?

Claiming a conclusion is true due to a threat, rather than evidence or reasoning.

Define the appeal to pity fallacy.

This fallacy relies on eliciting pity to establish a conclusion, rather than logical reasoning.

What does the appeal to the people fallacy target?

It appeals to the desires of people to be loved or respected.

What are the two forms of appeal to the people?

Direct (addressing a large group) and Indirect (targeting individuals).

What is ad hominem fallacy?

Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.

What is the straw man fallacy?

Distorting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.

What is hasty generalization fallacy?

Drawing a conclusion about a group based on insufficient evidence.

What are categorical statements?

Statements that fall into four types: A (All S are P), E (No S are P), I (Some S are P), O (Some S are not P).

What does the traditional square of opposition assume?

It assumes propositions refer to existing objects.

What is an immediate inference?

A logical deduction made directly from a single statement.

What is the rule of law?

Everyone is subject to the law, enforced impartially by courts.

What must legal judgments be based on?

Evidence, admissible according to legal standards, and logically adequate.

What is direct evidence?

Evidence that establishes the existence of a fact without inference.

How does the burden of proof differ between criminal trials and civil cases?

In criminal trials, the prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt; in civil cases, the plaintiff must establish a preponderance of evidence.