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liberty
freedom from governmental control
justice
the fairness of how rewards and punishments are delivered, especially by governments and courts, but also in society
equality of opportunity
a widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential
political ideology
cohesive set of beliefs that forms a general philosophy about the role of government
attitude (or opinion)
a specific preference on a particular issue
liberal
today this term refers to those who generally support social and political reform, governmental intervention in the economy, more economic equality, expansion of federal social services, and greater concern for consumers and the environment
conservative
today this term refers to those who generally support the social and economic status quo and are suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulas and economic arrangements; conservatives believe that a large and powerful government poses a threat to citizens’ freedom
libertarian
someone who emphasizes freedom and believes in voluntary association with small government
socialist
someone who generally believes in social ownership, strong government, free markets, and a reduction in economic inequality
political socialization
The induction of individuals into the political culture; learning the underlying beliefs and values on which the political system is based
agents of socialization
social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals’ basic political beliefs and values
gender gap
a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men
public-opinion polls
scientific instruments for measuring public opinion
sample
a small group selected by researchers to represent the most important characteristics of an entire population
simple random sample (or probability sample)
a method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected as a respondent
random digit dialing
a polling method in which respondents are selected at random from a list of 10-digit telephone numbers, with every effort made to avoid bias in the construction of the sample
sampling error (or margin of error)
polling error that arises based on the small size of the sample
social desirability bias
The effect that results when respondents in a survey answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others; can lead to overreporting good behavior or socially acceptable answers, or underreporting socially undesirable behavior or answers
selection bias
polling error that arises when the sample is not representative of the population being studied, which creates errors in overrepresenting or underrepresenting some opinions
bandwagon effect
a shift in electoral support to the candidate whom public-opinion polls report as the front-runner
media
print and digital forms of communication—including television, newspapers, radio, the internet, and social media sites—that convey information to large audiences
principled journalism
reporting that involves being as accurate, fair, and balanced as possible, relying on original sources, being transparent about citing sources, and presenting multiple viewpoints
adversarial journalism
a form of reporting in which the media adopt a skeptical or hostile posture toward the government and public officials
citizen journalism
news reporting and political commentary by ordinary citizens and bystanders, advocacy groups, and eyewitnesses to crises, often using cell phone images or video and distributed via social media
opinion-driven journalism
political blogs and talk shows where the writer or host provides highly opinionated personal commentary, usually through conversations with guests; these formats blur the boundaries between objective journalism and subjective reporting
journalism of assertion
the publishing or broadcasting of information or opinion as quickly as possible, with minimal fact-checking
journalism of affirmation
the putting forth of opinion and information that is consistent with the consumer’s preexisting beliefs
media monopolies
giant, often global, corporations that control a wide array of media, including television networks, movie studios, record companies, cable channels, book and newspaper publishers, and digital media outlets
agenda setting
the media’s designation of some issues, events, or people as important and others not
framing
the process of presenting information from a certain perspective in order to shape the audience’s understanding of that information
priming
The process of calling attention to some issues, and not others, when reporting on political events and officials
mainstream news organizations
organizations that adhere to the principles of journalism by doing original, balanced, factual reporting; using unpaid, credible sources; conducting interviews ethically; and avoiding personal bias by editors or reporters
partisan media
news organizations that mix opinion-driven journalism with factual reporting in order to appeal to consumers who are ideologically liberal or conservative; often characterized by ideological agenda setting, priming, and framing
broadcast media
communication methods such as television and radio; they tend to take the form of one publisher (e.g., a television station) to many (viewers)
news websites
digital sites that are owned and managed by newspapers, follow the principles of journalism, and deliver content like that of print newspapers, with similar story layout for all users
news aggregators
websites that pull together news from a wide range of online sources and make them available on one platform or page; news aggregators can be a way to avoid partisan or filtered news, providing a broad overview of the news of the day from many sources
algorithms
software programs that analyze the viewing, liking, and commenting data of all of a platform’s users, as well as individual users’ prior data, to present users with additional content tailored to their individual interests instead of ordering posts based on the most recently published (as broadcast media do)
confirmation bias
the tendency to favor information that confirms a person’s existing beliefs; it involves discounting evidence that could disprove or challenge those beliefs
filter bubbles
partisan media environments in which users are exposed primarily to opinions and information that conform to their existing beliefs; constructed by algorithms that analyze and then personalize each user’s online experience
misinformation
false, inaccurate, or misleading information in the media, especially social media; often targeting political candidates and leaders, misinformation can include manipulated or fabricated content, satire, and parody content to the public
disinformation
misinformation with the intention to deceive (is not an accident)
equal time rule
the requirement that broadcasters provide candidates for the same political office with equal opportunities to communicate their messages to the public
right of rebuttal
a Federal Communications Commission regulation giving individuals the right to respond to personal attacks made on a radio or television broadcast