2: Churchill as Wartime PM

State of the war as Churchill became PM (4)

- Situation was dangerous (Germans made rapid advances in Blitzkrieg attack through low countries into France)

- but Britain's army was still intact and was fighting on only one front.

- Churchill had formed a Cabinet with his own supporters

- French had large forces

- Italy hadn't joined Germany

What happened by 28th May 1940?

- Germany broke the French defences and the prospect of a rapid defeat in France became a reality.

- Britain were cut off from French, danger they would be destroyed at dunkirk

- looked liked Italy would join Germany

- Britains gold reserves were running out, and there was a danger that obtaining war supplies from north America would not be possible

germaninvasion of France bad for Britain?

If France was defeated, their army would be isolated

Challenges facing Churchill by 28th May (6)

- The British army had been cut off from French at Dunkirk - waiting to be evacuated.

- There was the danger of Italy entering the war

- Japan was a possible threat to British possessions in South Asia

- Gold reserves were running out, wasn't clear if Britain could afford to continue fighting

- Fear of large scale bombings in Britain after Germany bombed Poland

- Lord Halifax (appeasement supporter) was trying to find out what German terms for peace with Britain might be - not endorsed by Churchill

How many troops stranded at Dunkirk?

300,000

Churchill's reaction to these increasingly negative events

- still determined

- speeches to cabinet, hoc and entire nation emphasised his determination got never surrender

- encouraged Britain to see Dunkirk as a deliverance, dramatised it and shows how it was a demonstration of strength, "we shall fight on the beaches" speech

- "we shall never surrender speech"- was even willing to support France by committing more troops, until his colleagues steered him away from the idea

Why would Italy's entry into the war be dangerous for Britain?

It threaten Egypt and the Suez Canal and cut off Britain's quickest sea route its colonies.

Problems that Lord Halifax faced (2)

- Italy was still neutral, so they could be asked what Hitler would offer for peace.

- However, it was dangerous as Britain could be seen as weak by Hitler

______ British troops were evacuated from Dunkirk by ______

225,000

4 June 1940 - the end of battle of Dunkirk

When was Churchill's "we shall fight on the beaches" speech

4 June 1940

Situation on 3rd July 1940 (4)

- Huge gesture of defiance made by the attack of the French fleet to prevent it falling into German hands.

- RAF had been bombing Germany despite inevitable consequence

- A bold decision was taken to send British troops to Egypt even though there was the threat of German invasion.

- Britain achieved rapid victories against Italy, Hitler's ally.

What happened in August 1940?

Battle of Britain:

successful defense of Great Britain against the air raids conducted by the German air force in 1940 after the fall of France during World War II.

Germany decided to launch an air offensive attack (aimed to destroy RAF) which caused the brunt of the war to fall on Britain.

What was Goering's strategy for bombing cities?

Believed that bombing cities was more important than destroying the RAF, as morale would crack.

Strategies of Hugh Dowding (3) TO WON THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

- Mobilise small groups of fighters and preserving strength of RAF by not pursuing German bombers over the Channel.

- Was very effective

By the end of 1940 (2)

- Britain enjoyed victories in North Africa and defeated the German air offensive

- Churchill's oratory skills had become a weapon of war and he had established his position over his rivals.

Churchill's leadership style during the war (5)

- He was a hard taskmaster because of his determination to supervise details

- He was fascinated by imaginative ideas, even when science showed that many of the ideas were impractical.

- He would give orders from bed or the bath

- Officers who couldn't keep up or displeased him were dismissed

- However, there are many instances of Churchill taking advice or respecting those who stood up to him.

Key elements that mark Churchill out from his predecessors (5)

- Belief in establishing strong personal relations with his allies

- His mastery of both written and spoken expression

- A personal flamboyance (wore an array of uniforms and costumes, siren suit)

- Most travelled of any predecessors due to his wartime journeys

- He was daring and ruthless (determination to fight on in 1940, decision to destroy French fleet, support of civilian bombing in Germany, plans to destroy German invaders with poison gas).

Churchill's Experience and Failures

• Military Experience:

  • Served as a young man in:

    • Sudan

    • North West Frontier of India

    • Cuba (as an observer)

    • South Africa (as a war correspondent)

  • Little experience in command, planning, or high-level strategy.

  • No naval experience, despite holding naval positions.

• Failures:

  • Gallipoli Campaign (1915):

    • Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty, pushed the idea of invading Turkey.

    • Led to heavy losses (mainly ANZAC troops).

    • Failed to get past the beaches; only the evacuation succeeded.

    • Resulted in his resignation.

  • Western Front:

    • Briefly served as a colonel.

    • Saw little action, soon left to return to politics.

  • Norway Campaign (1939–40):

    • As head of the navy again, supported another failed campaign.

Churchill’s perspective/view

• Influenced by First World War experiences:

  • Blamed politicians for allowing generals like Haig to pursue high-casualty strategies without proper oversight.

• Frustrated with military caution during the 1930s:

  • Commanders advised against action due to fear of a three-front war (Germany, Italy, Japan).

• Believed in more assertive and bold actions.

• Felt generals were overly cautious and needed strong direction from political leaders.

Churchill's relationship with generals (3)

- His military chiefs were all too aware that Churchill's own military career had failed

- Little experience of command, planning or overall strategy

- This did not stop him giving direct orders to the navy

- always very aggressive with his tactics and forward pressing, which mean that those who wanted to take more pragmatic moves were seen as weak

The Gallipoli campaign 1915

- Invasion of Turkey (Germany's ally) to avoid a large-scale war in France.

- Involved navy landing armed forces to take Constantinople.

- Resulted in heavy losses and failure to get beyond the beaches.

- Churchill was forced to resign

Churchill's first few months as PM (4)

- Churchill made criticisms of military leaders and issued unrealistic orders

- When the German forces broke through the French lines, their fast moving attack proved too much for the French and the British commander Lord Gort was forced to ignore Churchill's orders in order to preserve the British forces.

- Churchill's insistence to defend the port of Calais until the end was pointless and lost valuable men

- His desire to send another British force even when France was on the brink of defeat was stopped by argument by Sir John Dill. Churchill got rid of him asap.

who was field marshal wavell

- Chruchill personally disliked him, gave him little credit for the huge victories in north africa (operation torch, western desert campaign, tunisia campaign)

- Churchill took his forces away when Italy invaded greece in 1940 as they needed men to establish a new balkan front -> so men struggled in north africa

- Churchill blamed Wavell for this and demoted him

- ONE OF THE POOR POLITICAL-MILITARY RELATIONSHIP that justifies the claims of Churchill's inability to collaborate

How was Brooke's temperament different to Chruchill's?

- He was conscious of the need to avoid heavy casualties.

- He was often annoyed at Churchill for coming up with all sorts of different military ideas and for thinking aloud

Churchill's relationship with Brooke

- Personal dealings with Churchill were tricky, but with major decisions there were fewer disagreements

- Brooke supported Churchill's controversial decision to send a lot of Britain's military equipment to the Middle East, to protect suez canal from italy

Overall relationship with Brooke

Difficult but successful

Who was Wavell?

Commander in Chief of British forces in North Africa

Relationship with Wavell (4)

- Churchill disliked him on personal level

- gave him little credit for the huge victories in north africa (operation torch, western desert campaign, tunisia campaign)

- In February, Wavell was ordered to send his troops to Greece, meaning his men struggled in North Africa

- There was no prior planning and resources, so it failed when the German force invaded and they were pushed back to Egypt.

- Wavell did not have the resources to fight the German forces under Rommel so he was given the blame and demoted

- ONE OF THE POOR POLITICAL-MILITARY RELATIONSHIP that justifies the claims of Churchill's inability to collaborate

Overall relationship with Wavell

Very poor

Who was Sir Claude Auchinleck?

Replaced Wavell as Commander in Chief

Relationship with Auchinleck (5)

• Succeeded Wavell as Commander-in-Chief Middle East.

• Achieved success at the First Battle of El Alamein but delayed a follow-up offensive.

• Churchill grew frustrated with his refusal to launch attacks until he was fully prepared.

• Auchinleck was seen by Churchill as lacking "offensive spirit" and too slow in decision-making.

• In 1942, Churchill dismissed Auchinleck and replaced him with General Montgomery (Monty).

Relationship with Montgomery (5)

• Appointed by Churchill in 1942 after Auchinleck’s dismissal.

• Monty’s confidence, charisma, and clear planning appealed to Churchill.

• Churchill publicly supported Monty, especially after the victory at El Alamein.

• Despite Monty’s slow and cautious advances later in the war (e.g., Italy, Normandy), Churchill continued to favour him.

• Their relationship reflected Churchill’s admiration for generals who projected energy and optimism, even when strategic results were mixed.

When was Battle of El Alamein

October 1942.

When was the invasion of Italy

September 1943

What happened in invasion of Italy?

- There was a campaign of slow progress through Italy

- This distracted Allies from the task of defeating the main German armies and invading Germany.

- It kept more British and American troops occupied than German, forcing Russia to take on the main task of moving towards Germany

Why did Churchill admire Sir Harold Alexander?

British commander, showed persistence in maintaining a slow advance on Italy.

When was D-Day?

6 June 1944

What happened on D-Day?

- Allied invasion of France at the beaches of Normandy

- British troops faced little resistance compared to the USA, but they were slow to break through from the beachhead and take the key port of Caen.

When was Operation Market Garden?

1944

What was Operation Market Garden?

Aim was to capture strategic bridges in German occupied Netherlands

Britain only captured 1 out of 5 bridges and were forced to retreat

Britain tried to capture a bridge in Arnhem but failed

RESULTED IN: Britain had to follow USA orders , loss of freedom of action

What was the effect of the war in North Africa on Churchill? (3)

- Resulted in a huge loss of confidence in his major commanders by Churchill.

- It had been dominated by his belief that the war could be won in the Mediterranean without destroying German forces in the west.

- His major influence on the strategy influenced the reckless final adventure at Arnhem.

Why was Britain so concerned by the Mediterranean? (4)

• It was a vital trade and empire route, especially as a connection to India and Asia.

• The Suez Canal was the main link between Britain and its Asian colonies.

• It was also strategically important for the defence of Middle Eastern oil supplies.

• Britain had a long-standing military and political interest in maintaining control over the region.

explain the situation with the Mediterranean strategy

- In 1940 Britain had won some quick victories against Italy, but when Hitler sent a German army to north Africa, there was a threat to Egypt and the Middle East which had to be met.

- Once that had been defeated in

1942-43, the chance arose for an attack on Germany through Italy and also opening a Balkan front.

- This was seen as an alternative to a costly attack in northern France.

- Thus a lot of the British war effort took place in north Africa and later in an invasion of Sicily and then Italy.

- The USA was persuaded to support this. The invasion of northern France did not take place until June 1944.

why was the Mediterranean strategy justified

- Churchill thought that a delay in invading France would benefit the Allies, as Germany would then be weakened by US and British bombing raids as well as from losses of troops in the USSR.

- He also did not think that the invasion of France would be delayed by long, as Mussolini's regime in Italy was weak and the invasion of Sicily had gone well in 1943, indicating that the campaign in Italy would be over quickly.

- Churchill also wanted to extend British influence in south-east Europe - something he considered strategically important for Britain.

what was the issue with the Mediterranean strategy though?

Both American military chiefs (General Marshall) and Stalin saw the idea of invading Germany through Italy or southern Europe was as flawed:

- Germany could only be defeated by invading the homeland and engaging with the bulk of the German forces. This meant invading northern France. (MILITARY THEORY)

- Up to 1942, German defences along the French coastline of the Channel were not very developed.

- The great Atlantic Wall of fortifications along the coast was not built until later, so Britain was losing an opportunity to open a second front.

- Fighting in the Mediterranean took away valuable resources, especially landing craft, from other campaigns for what was, at best, peripheral to the main struggle.

military theory

Military theory stresses engagement at crucial points, not peripheral theatres.

What dominated military thinking by 1940?

Defense of the Empire

What happened after Germany went to war with Russia in 1941? (3)

- By 1942, Germany had driven Russian forces back considerably in the South.

- If the North African attack by Germany moved into Egypt, then German forces might link up with forces in Russia and secure vital oil fields of southern Russia and the Middle East.

- British forces faced a more serious enemy in the form of the German Afrika Korps and their commander General Erwin Rommel.

Invasion of the Balkans (2)

- Churchill thought they would be the most vulnerable to Allied invasion

.- However, in 1940-41, they proved to not be as vulnerable as Churchill thought, and British troops were defeated in Greece and forced out.

What did General George Marshall believe should’ve been done instead, and why?

• Marshall supported a direct invasion of Northern France rather than wasting time in the Mediterranean.

Three reasons why:

1. Atlantic Wall (German defences in France) hadn’t yet been built in 1942 – making an early invasion more feasible.

2. The survival of Russia depended on opening a Western Front to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front.

3. The main German forces were in Europe, so focusing on the Mediterranean was a strategic distraction.

The War in Italy by 1943

- Considerable resources were devoted to an invasion of Sicily by British and US forces which failed to prevent the Germans retreating

- The Mediterranean had been secured.

- Italy had been weakened and was no longer a serious threat in 1943

What was the point of the extended campaign to take Italy?

- 16 Allied divisions were occupied with fighting in Italy

- If Italy had fallen, this would not have led to the defeat of Germany.

- They needed a decisive defeat of the German forces in France

Why did they put off D-Day for so long?

- High casualties were expected

- The long struggle in Italy was not expected and the Allies hoped that bold landings would speed up the process, such as the failed landings at Anzio in 1944

- British policy was to preserve the empire and maintain British dominance over the Mediterranean

- The invasion of Sicily seemed the logical next step from the pursuit of German forces after the Battle of El Alamein in 1942.

so what was dday

- June 1944

- delayed (invasion of occupied France), due to high casualties in Italy and also because Russia were weakening Germany so wanted to intervene last second and rather focus on Mediterranean

Impact of the delayed invasion of France

- by 1944 the Germans had built formidable defences on the French coast and relations with Stalin had been weakened by the failure to open a second front in Europe.

- He blamed heavy Russian casualties on Britain and the USA's delay in invading France.

- However, an invasion needed a very large build-up of forces, as was illustrated by a raid on the French Channel port of Dieppe in 1942, which showed the problems of landing forces without great superiority of resources.

- By 1944, Germany had been weakened by the war in the east and there were German forces tied down in Italy.

- Since the war in France and Germany from 1944-45 produced casualties comparable to those of the First World War, an earlier invasion might have been very costly.

so overall was churchill right about the mediterranean strategy? YES

Churchill was correct in that the defence of oil supplies was absolutely crucial and the British had to prevent the Germans linking their forces in north Africa with their armies in southern Russia in 1941-42.

The defeat of Rommel, the German commander in north Africa, required a large build up of forces.

so overall was churchill right about the mediterranean strategy? NO

After the Germans had withdrawn from north Africa, however, the situation was less clear.

- The invasion of Italy did indeed tie up valuable US and British forces.

- It was also not over as quickly as anticipated and instead became a long, hard struggle as the war in Italy got bogged down in trench warfare.

- German forces first reinforced Italian forces and then took over the fighting when Italy withdrew from the war.

- Britain also got distracted by having to take part in a civil war in Greece in 1944.

Dresden was an example of a strong belief in...

bomber command

What was the rationale for the bombing of Germany? (3)

- To destroy German morale, and its capacity to provide for its armed forces

- Considerable public pressure for the bombings, as Germany had started targeting major cities in the Battle of Britain.

- Germany had used civilian bombing in Poland and the Low Countries in 1940, Blitz occurs, so taste your own medicine?

- Thought it could hasten the end of the war

- Bombing of places such as Dreseden were major transportation hub, 130 factories supplying poisonous gas, justifies its destroyal

- Reich inflated the number of deaths (nazi propaganda)

- Necessary to vanquish one of the most evil regimes?

Problems preventing Britain from bombing Germany (3)

- Specialist report in 1942 found that bombing in most areas was not effective or precise enough to substantially destroy German industrial production

- The Blitz had not destroyed civilian morale in Britain, so there was little chance that it would destroy morale in Germany

- There were ethical objections to killing large numbers of civilians.

Dresden -> 40,000 deaths

All bombings -> 600,000

- Ruining culturally rich cities, architecture

- Blood soaked context may outdo justifications, people asphyxiated, boiled etc

When did the bombing raids begin and by who?

Sir Arthur Harris in 1942

when was a particularly heavy raid?

cologne in may 1943

What were Harris' aims with bombing?

He deliberately aimed at as much destruction of German cities as possible by assembling large forces of bombers with incendiary bombs

Major cities with biggest impact from bombing

- Hamburg

- The Ruhr

- Berlin

- Dresden

Total casualties for bombing of Britain throughout the war

60,595

When was the Blitz?

1940-41

Total casualties for the bombing of Germany

600,000

What was controversial about the bombing of Dresden?

- Dresden was the country's most famous and historic city

- Was not an obvious military target

- It was a city that sheltered thousands of refugees

Death toll in Dresden

40,000

How had relationships changed between the allies throughout the war? (5)

- In 1940, Britain found itself dominated by a more powerful USA, with whom strategy had to be agreed.

- Britain was conscious that the USSR had made a huge sacrifice of people and forces to wear the German war machine down.

- After Normandy, British forces began to take much heavier losses.

- Britain lost freedom of decision making, as they were a junior partner of the Grand Alliance

- After the Arnhem disaster, Britain was forced to go forward at a pace directed by US commander Eisenhower

Yalta, February 1945

Churchill was forced to accept unpalatable decisions:

- Poland's borders were moved westwards and Stalin took back more of Eastern Poland.

- Russian prisoners of war who fought on the German side were returned back to Stalin for punishment.

What was Churchill frustrated about at Yalta?

- Germany had crushed the rebellion in Warsaw by the Poles and killed off any who were spirited enough to provide opposition to Russian domination

- Roosevelt paid limited attention to Churchill's warnings of a Russian-dominated post-war Eastern Europe.

Key features of Churchill's involvement in the Mediterranean (2)

- In 1944, Churchill sent troops to fight against a communist rising in Greece

- British forces were stretched across Germany, the defence of India and the Middle East, the war in Burma against Japan, and now fought a campaign in Greece to defend the monarch

Reasons for post-war planning

- Despite being at war, Churchill's Government devoted time, thought and money to what would happen afterwards.

- It was fairly clear that Britain would not lose the war by 1944, so there could be thought about the post-war period without taking resources away from the war effort.

- The Government was also conscious that there had been disappointment when plans for a better Britain were not implemented after the First World War, so it wanted to do better this time.

- It was important for morale to give the British people a sense of hope that, after the defeat of Germany, there would not simply be a return to the hardships of the 1930s, and that wartime shortage, losses and sacrifice would not be in vain.

nature of government during the war in terms of reconstruction

- The wartime ministry was a coalition and contained Labour, Liberal and some progressive Conservative MPs and ministers who were keen to consider domestic policies alongside international ones.

- Churchill himself had been an active social reformer before the First World War and, though he was more concerned with military and diplomatic matters, he did not block discussion of reform at home

key domestic policies during the war

- Beveridge Report of 1942

- Commitment to ending the old system of help for the poor and to create a new system of National Assistance

- influential reports on town planning and industrial development.

- Hospitals and railways were run by the state.

- National Insurance had been reformed and a new ministry created to run it.

- The Education Act of 1944

- Plans for future extension of the Welfare State and public service

- 1942 railway network was nationalised

Beveridge Report of 1942

- proposed a 'cradle to grave' plan for social welfare to eliminate poor health, ignorance and poverty, should be enacted.

- aimed to deal with poverty, ill health and unemployment after the war

- Labour believed it didn't go far enough

- Conservatives and liberals accepted it but Churchill was not enthusiastic about creating a new welfare state (expressed concerns over costs) but had accepted key measures and recommendations.

- In the event, these were instituted by Labour, who won the election of 1945.

The Education Act of 1944

- reorganised education, ended fees and promised to raise the school leaving age to 15

- made free, school meals + milk

Reasons for Labour's election victory in 1945, LABOUR STRENGTHS

- Labour fought a well-focused campaign stressing domestic change which appealed to a general public who did not want a return to the hardships of the 1930s.

- Labour ministers had been more important than Conservatives in domestic affairs during the war, and were thought more likely to pass reforms after the war.

- Many of the state-intervention policies which were seen to work well during the war were more attributed to Labour, and the general public had become more used to the increased role of the state. In addition, members of the armed forces had become more aware of political issues and now favoured Labour.

Labour was seen as most likely to implement social reform as people wanted more social mobility, they presented a more progressive manifesto and seemed most likely to implement social reform

Reasons for Labour's election victory in 1945, CONSERVATIVE WEAKNESSES

- Conservative's election campaign was less well organised than Labour's.

- It was heavily reliant on Churchill's reputation, but this was built on war-time success.

- Many in working-class areas remembered Churchill being opposed to strikes and socialism, and the Conservative Party was often associated with the unemployment and hardship of the 1930s.

- Churchill was seen as apart from the Conservatives, he had criticised the very same people he was now working with (appeasement and rearmament), compared Labour to Nazis which was ridiculous

- Churchill did not help the situation when he made an unwise speech about Labour needing a 'Gestapo to enforce its policies, which made him unpopular (compared them to nazis which was ridiculous)

- Conservatives were blamed for 'hungry decade' during 1930s and appeasement policy, they were also too war focused which isolated them from people's interests, too bleak in comparison, housing shortages blamed on them

- Was known for having a bad temper, also deemed old fashioned and rather a figurehead

Churchill gestapo speech date

June 1945

When did WW2 end in Europe?

May 8, 1945

results of 1945 election

In then end, Labour won 47 per cent of the votes and 61 per cent of the seats - the biggest Labour victory ever.

when was the 1945 election?

5th July 1945

What happened to Poland's wishes by 1944?

They were being ignored and there was every prospect of Russian domination

Why was Britain's bombing hypocritical?

Britain, which was the defender of 'civilised values' subjected German cities to heavy bombing and caused large civilian casualties

Who controlled military strategy in the war by 1944?

US

How was British imperialism faring by 1944?

War to preserve the British Empire had seen much of the 'Empire of the East' lost to the Japanese in 1942, pressure for Indian independence, US hostility to British imperialism

What did wartime problems bring attention to in Britain?

- The need for social reform in post-war Britain

- There was hope for successful post-war reconstruction which did not occur after WWI.

What social changes had the wartime coalition led by Churchill focused on? (7)

- Rest centres and meal service

- Committee for the Homeless

- Emergency Hospital service

- National Fire service

- Children

- Railways

- Factories

Committee for the Homeless made ______ homes habitable to meet the housing shortage

1 million

How was the emergency Hospital service made?

By 1941, 8/10 hospitals were brought under a national scheme for the first time

How was the National Fire Service made?

Over 1500 different fire services were brought together

How were children helped? (5)

- Diphtheria immunisation

- Free milk given to school children

- Free school meals

- Orange juice and cod liver oil provided

- Reductions in infant mortality

What did the government do to help railways?

- In 1942, British railways united and nationalised the rail network

What were the Factory Acts?

- 1940

- Improved welfare for 6 million workers

- Improved conditions of work for younger workers

- Catering Wages Act 1942 and Wages Councils Act 1945 improved wages

What was the 1941 Post-War problems committee?

Chaired by the Tory R.A. Butler, this began to consider post-war reform and recovery

What was the 1944 Education Act? (4)

- The school leaving age was to be raised to 15 by 1947

- Education to be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary.

- School fees ended in state schools

- 11+ exam introduced

What was the 1944 Town and Country Planning Act?

Dealt with reconstruction of badly bombed areas

Land and housing reform

These reports paved the way for purchase of land after the war for housing development.

- 1940 Barlow report

- 1942 Uthwatt Report

- 1942 Scott Report

- 1944 White Paper on Land Use