CHE 002B Final

SI Prefixes:

Tera [T]

Giga [G]

Mega [M]

Kilo [k]

Centi [c]

Milli [m]

Micro [μ]

Nano [n]

Pico [p]

Femto [f]

12

9

6

3

-2

-3

-6

-9

-12

-15

Water:

What temperature does water boil?

What temperature does water freeze?

100 C

0 C

Define:

System

Surroundings

Boundary

Part of the universe chosen for studying

Anything outside the system

The line/surface that separates the system and surroundings

Types of Systems:

Open System

Closed System

Isolated System

Exchanges of matter and energy across a boundary.

Exchanges of just energy across a boundary.

No exchanges of matter or energy occur across a boundary.

Thermodynamic Definitions:

Define energy.

Define work.

What is the unit of energy?

Define heat.

Define specific heat (Cp).

Define heat capacity (C), which is used for calorimeters

The capacity to do work.

The process where a system can interact with its surroundings and exchange energy.

Joules (J) = kgm²/s²

The energy transfer from hot to cold between 2 objects due to a temperature difference.

Cp is for a pure substance and describes how well it holds onto temperature.

The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of the system by 1 °C.

Thermodynamic Formulas:

What is the formula for work?

What is the formula for heat?

What are the units for each variable in the formula for heat?

What is the formula for C?

Force (N) x Distance (m) = 1 Joule

Heat (q) = mass (m) x Specific Heat (Cp) x Change in Temp (ΔT) = nΔH

Mass is in grams, but can be in mols. Specific heat is in J/g°C or J/g°K or cal/g°C

C = m x Cp = J/°C or cal/°C

Types of Energy:

Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy

Thermal Energy

What is thermal energy proportional to?

Chemical Energy

Translational motion of an object

Energy that is stored due to composition, position, or condition.

Random molecular motion or frictional heating

Temperature (T) x Number of particles (N)

Energy associated with bonds due to intermolecular/intramolecular attraction and repulsion.

Thermodynamic Laws:

Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from 1 form to another.

How do you solve heat problems?

1. Make the sum of heat equal to zero.

2. Determine all sources of q.

3. Use the correct formula depending on where q comes from.

Sources of q:

1. q comes from a temperature change.

2. q comes from an enthalpy change, which includes phase changes, reactions, or mixing of solutions.

1. Use q = mCpΔT

2. Use q = number of mols (n) x enthalpy (ΔH)

Define: Enthalpy

A flow of heat that occurs at constant pressure and doesn’t involve a temperature change.

Values of q:

1. When q > 0

2. When q < 0

1. Heat is being absorbed by the system and entering it. This is endothermic and feels cold.

2. Heat evolved from the system and is leaving. This ix exothermic and feels hot.

Define: Heats of Reactions (q_rxn)

Can only be done through calorimetry.

The quantity of heat exchanged between systems and surroundings during a chemical reaction.

Define: Bomb Calorimeter

An isolated system at constant volume typically used for combustion reactions.

How to solve problems under bomb calorimeter?

1. Sum of q = 0

2. q_rxn + q_cal = 0

3. q_rxn = -q_cal

4. q_rxn = -CΔT

Formulas of work:

Work = -PΔV = -ΔnRT

Signs of work:

What happens when the system (reaction) is doing work on its surroundings?

What happens when the surroundings is doing work on the system?

Work is negative

Work is positive

Pressure-Volume Units:

1 L atm = 101.325 J

Formula of 1st Law of Thermodynamics:

ΔU = Total/Internal Energy = Kinetic + Potential

ΔU = heat (q) + work (w)

Functions:

State Functions

Pathway - Dependent Functions

Depends on the intial/final states.

Depend on a pathway.

Heats of Rxns:

At constant volume?

At constant pressure?

ΔU = q_v

ΔU = ΔH - PΔV

Solving for Enthalpy: Hess Law

A way to determine ΔH in an overall reaction with simultaneous reactions.

Solving for Enthalpy: Enthalpy of Formation (ΔH^o_f)

sum of nΔH products - sum of nΔH reactants

What is the standard state conditions in thermodynamics?

1 bar at 25 C.

Heats of Formation:

ΔH_f^o = Heat at constant pressure

Note that heat of formation is equal to 0 for any element in its elemental form.

Elemental States:

Gasses?

Liquids?

Solids?

H2, N2, O2, Cl2, F2, and He

Br2 and Hg

I2, most metals

Spontaneity:

Define spontaneous.

Define non-spontaneous.

A process that occurs when a system is left to itself.

When an external force is applied to a system.

Define: Entropy (S)

The greater the number of configurations of microscopic particles, the greater the entropy/disorder/randomness of a system.

Entropy (S):

Is positive for spontaneous processes.

S_g > S_l > S_s

S = Kb x ln W

W refers to the number of microstates, which increases when temperature, volume, and mols increase.

Formula for change in entropy:

ΔS_surr = -ΔH_sys/T = -q_rev/T

Temp is in K.

ΔS^o = Sum of nΔS^o products - Sum of nΔS^o reactants

2nd Law of Thermodynamics:

ΔS_universe = ΔS_sys + ΔS_surr > 0

All spontaneous processes have an increase in entropy.

In any closed system, the amount of energy for work decreases over time.

3rd Law of Thermodynamics:

The entropy (S) of a pure, perfect crystal at 0K is 0.

Gibbs Free Energy:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

When ΔG < 0, the reaction is spontaneous

When ΔG > 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous

When ΔG = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium

ΔG is the maximum amount of energy available in a closed, reversible system at constant T, P, and V.

Any state change makes ΔG equal to zero.

Gibbs Free Energy and Keq

ΔG = ΔG^o + RT ln Q

When ΔG = 0, the system is at equlibrium, so Q = K_eq

1. ΔG = 0, at equlibrium where Keq = 1

2. ΔG < 0, forward reaction is spontaneous and Keq > 1

3. ΔG > 0, forward reaction is non-spontaneous and Keq < 1

Equilibrium at different states:

ln(K₂/K₁) = -ΔH^o/R (1/T₂ + 1/T₁)

Define: Electromagnetic Radiation

Form of energy transmission in which electric and magentic fields are propagated as waves through a vacuum or medium.

Wave Properties:

What can waves be categorized as?

What are waves mathematically described by?

Descriptions of waves include:

1. Amplitude

2. Nodes

3. Wavelengths

4. Frequency

Traveling or standing.

Sine/Cosine functions

1. Height of a wave

2. Points where the wave crosses an axis and equals 0.

3. One cycle of a wave.

4. The number of crests per unit of time.

Relationship between Amplitude & Frequency:

Wavelength units?

Frequency units?

What is the relationship between wavelength and frequency?

Formula concerning the speed of light?

Wavelength is in m or nm

Frequency is in hz or 1/s

They are inversely proportional to each other.

c = (wavelength)(frequency)

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

What does it include?

What is the wavelength visible light exists on?

How can light be separated?

UV, cosmic rays, gamma rays, visible light, x-rays, infrared, microwaves, TV waves, and radio waves.

Visible light exists from 400-700 nm (violet to red).

Two ways:

1. A differentiation gradient that uses interference patterns

2. A prism where light travels at different velocities in different mediums.

Wave Collision:

What is an interference pattern?

What is constructive interference?

What is destructive interference?

When waves collid.

Waves that add together to form larger waves.

Waves that subtract to null.

What is quantum mechanics?

It’s modern science that studies on a microscopic scale.

It uses discontinuous/discrete energies.

Only certain energies/states are allowed are allowed.

Certain energies/states are also forbidden.

What are the 5 concepts described by quantum mechanics?

1. Atomic line spectra

2. Black body radiation

3. Photoelectric effect

4. Wave-particle duality

5. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Atomic Line Spectra:

What is it?

What is important regarding the light within the atomic line spectra?

When you put a voltage through a lamp containing an element, light is emitted. When passed through a slit to focus the light, the resulting light passed through a prism separates the visible light into a spectrum.

Depending on the element, each atomic lamp has unique emission lines that are discrete/discontinuous.

Black Body Radiation:

What is it?

What is assumed to be a black body?

What is the most common radiation at room temperature?

What happens to visible light at higher temps with black bodies? Example of this?

How can we determine the energy of these radiation waves?

It’s when radiation that is emitted from an object (blackbody) absorbs nearly all the electromagnetic radiation that falls on it.

A black hole.

Infrared light

It is reflected and an example is the sun.

Use formula E = hv = hc/λ; h = Planck’s constant

Photoelectric Effect:

What is it?

When light energy is directed towards a metal, electrons are removed from the metal.

Classically, it is believed that when the energy and intensity of light increase, the number of electrons removed also increases.

However, the number of electrons removed increases only above a certain threshold energy.

Bohr Atom:

How does QM describe an atom?

What does the Bohr model forbid and why?

What happens when electrons change orbit?

QM says that:

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus

2. Electrons have fixed orbits where energy is constant.

3. Electrons can change orbits with a loss or gain of a fixed energy.

It states that space between orbits forbids electrons because, without the orbits, electrons could assume any energy level, making chemical stability disappear when the slightest change in energy occurs.

Electrons change orbits instantaneously without spending any time in-between.

Orbitals:

What does the quantum number n correspond to?

What is needed for an electron to jump up an energy level?

What happens when an electron drops to a lower level?

What do the lights released by electrons correspond to?

What is the equation to determine the change in energy between orbitals?

The orbital level.

Energy.

Light is emitted.

Colors of the atomic line spectra.

ΔE = R_H(1/n_i² - 1/n_f²) x Z²; It is called the Balmer equation for hydrogen, and Rydberg’s equation for anything else. Z corresponds to the atomic number of an element.

Wave-Particle Duality:

What is it?

What equation is used to derive Broylie’s equation?

What is the Broylie equation?

When light (or anything) can act as a wave or particle depending on the situation.

Einstein’s equation; E = mc²

It includes wavelength and mass; λ = h/mu; m equals mass and u equals velocity.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

What does it state?

What are the equations?

No one can measure position (x) and momentum (p = mu) precisely and simultaneously.

1. ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π

2. Δp = mΔu

3. xmu(%) = h/4π; Note that the percentage should be put into fractional/decimal form.

2D Wave Mechanics:

What waves are there?

What is important about standing waves?

How do you calculate the number of nodes?

What is the wave function?

Since the energy of these waves increases as n increases, what is the formula for calculating it?

What does 𝚿² represent?

What happens to the graph of 𝚿²?

Travelling waves and standing waves.

There is no displacement/movement.

Nodes = n (orbital level) - 1

𝚿_n(x) = (√2/L) sin(nπx/L)

E = n²h²/8m_eL²; mass in this case will be equal to the weight of an electron.

The probability density, aka the probability of finding an electron. At a node, this is equal to 0. The higher the number, the more likely it is to find an electron at that point.

All the waves from underneath the x-axis are flipped up.

Orbitals Definitions:

Orbitals are 3D wave functions. What are they?

What are nodes?

What do radial nodes look like?

What do angular nodes look like?

Areas where you’re likely to find an electron within an atom.

Nodes represent where electrons do not exist.

Spherical

Linear

3D Wave Mechanics

What are the spherical polar coordinates used for 3D wave functions?

What does r describe?

What does θ (theta) describe?

What does Φ (phi) describe?

The function 𝚿(r, θ, Φ) can be broken down into R(r)Y(θ, Φ). What does each function describe?

r, θ, and Φ

The distance from the origin

The angle between the z-axis and r.

The angle between the x-axis and r in the xy plane.

R(r) is the radial part of the function. Y(θ, Φ) is the angular part of the wavefunction.

Quantum Numbers:

What is the name, value, and concept of the quantum number, n?

What is the name, value, and concept of the quantum number, l?

What is the name, value, and concept of the quantum number, m_l^?

What is the name, value, and concept of the quantum number, m_s?

The principle QN can be a positive finite set of numbers that describe size and energy.

The angular momentum ranges from 0 to 3, and describes the shape of the oribital.

The magnetic QN is equal to -l to +l in increments of 1. It describes the orientation/number of orbitals.

The spin can only be ½ of -1/2 and describes the orientation of electrons.

Angular Momentum (l):

Each number value of angular momentum has a designated orbital and name. What are they for 0?

For 1?

For 2?

For 3?

The s-orbital is historically known as sharp.

The p-orbital, historically known as principal.

The d-orbital is historically known as diffuse.

The f-orbital is historically known as fundamental.

Extra Notes on Quantum Numbers:

On a table, the following values will be listed:

n - l - nl - ml - number of orbitals - number of nodes

l will always be one less than n.

The number of orbitals is the number of values in m_l.

The number of nodes is calculated by n-1.

n is called the shell, and l is called the sub-shell.

Drawing Orbitals:

What is the shape of the s orbital?

Shape of the p orbital?

Shape of the d orbital?

Shape of the f orbital?

The following orbitals should be able to be drawn: 1s, 2s, 3s, p_z, p_x, p_y, dz², dx²-y², dxy, dyz, and dxz.

A sphere

A dumbbell

A 4-leaf clover

A 8-leaf clover

Areas where an electron can change in n value.

Draw them.

Electron Spins:

What does the ½ and -1/2 value in m_s describe?

What is the maximum number of electrons an orbital can hold?

What is the maximum number of electrons in an s, p, d, or f orbitals?

Looking at the periodic table, memorize nl of each period.

½ is the up spin and -1/2 is the down spin.

2 electrons of opposing spins.

2, 6, 10, 14.

Draw it out for better memorization.

Electron Configuration:

There are 4 ways to write electron configurations. What does spdf condensed do?

spdf expanded?

Orbital diagram?

Orbital energy level diagram?

It writes the orbital in numerical order and with the number of electrons as a superscript. Noble gasses are filled in.

It writes every orbital separately.

Gives each orbital a box and shows the electron spins through arrows.

Similar to the orbital diagram, but boxes are lined vertically to show increasing energy.

Rules to Electron Configuartion:

Aufbau Principle states?

Pauli Exclusion Principle states?

Hund’s Rule states?

The ground state of an atom or ion fills atomic orbitals with electrons of the lowest energy levels before occupying high levels. So a 1s shell would be filled before a 2s shell.

States it is impossible for 2 electrons to have the same values of the 4 QN numbers.

States you must fill degenerate (same energy) orbitals first. So in 2p, the electron would go from p_z, p_y, p_z, and repeat till it was full.

Drawing Orbitals:

What is the shape of the s orbital?

Shape of the p orbital?

Shape of the d orbital?

Shape of the f orbital?

The following orbitals should be able to be drawn: 1s, 2s, 3s, p_z, p_x, p_y, dz², dx²-y², dxy, dyz, and dxz.

A sphere

A dumbbell

A 4-leaf clover

A 8-leaf clover

Areas where an electron can change in n value.

Draw them.

Atomic Theory:

What groups have exceptions to the rules of electron configuration?

For transition metals, what orbital electrons are removed first?

What trends of the periodic table increase right and up?

What trends of the periodic table increase left and down?

Group 6 and 11

s electrons before d electrons.

Electronegativity and ionization energy.

Atomic radius, shielding, and metallic character.

Magnetism:

Define diamagnetism.

Define paramagnetism.

All electrons are paired and are slightly repulsed by a magnetic field.

A net magnetic moment caused by an unpaired electron.

Lewis Theory of Bonding:

What is the Lewis Theory of Bonding based on?

What type of electrons is involved in bonding?

Define ionic bonds.

Define covalent bond.

What is the octet rule?

What orbitals/electrons are involved in the octet rule?

That the noble gas configuration is desired.

Valence electrons.

The transfer of electrons between a metal and a nonmetal.

The sharing of electrons between 2 nonmetals.

The desired configuration of atoms where atoms have 8 valence electrons.

Two s electrons and six p electrons

Types of Bonds:

What are the 5 types of bonds?

Define coordinate covalent.

Define multiple bonds.

Define polar covalent bonds.

Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, coordinate covalent, multiple bonds, and polar covalent bonds.

A covalent bond where the electrons responsible for bonding are contributed by 1 atom.

Multiple bonds are covalent bonds that share more than 2 electrons. Includes double/triple bonds.

Bonds where the electrons are not shared equally between 2 atoms because of differences in electronegativity.

Electronegativity:

What did Linus Pauling create?

How is polarity given?

What is the value range for covalent bonds?

What is the value range for polar covalent bonds?

What is the value range for the ionic bonds?

A numerical scale for electronegativity from 0-4 that quantifies the polarity of a bond.

By the absolute value in the difference of electronegativity between 2 atoms.

0-1

1-2

2-4

Drawing Lewis Structures:

What are the 5 rules to drawing Lewis Structures?

1. Find the total number of valence electrons.
   

2. Draw a structural skeleton.
   

3. Fill in all the valence electrons starting with the terminal atoms.

   1. If there are extra electrons, put them on the atom with an atomic number greater than 10.

   2. If there is more than 1 atom with an atomic number greater than 10, put it on the centermost atom.
      

4. Ask if the atom has an octet.

   1. If yes, then you’re done.

   2. If no, then ask if the atom is H or an element in group 13 (B, Al, Ga).

      1. These elements are okay, but if it’s still no consider resonance structures.
         

5. Consider formal charges (FC) on each atom.

   1. The best FC is 0, but -1 and +1 are okay.

   2. The overall charge of the molecule is equal to the sum of all FC.

Lewis Structures:

What is the formula for the formal charge?

Which element is usually the center atom?

What are the exceptions to the octet rule?

What do odd electron species lead to?

What elements usually lead to incomplete octets?

What elements lead to expanded valence shells?

What elements will usually have a full octet?

The number of valence electrons - The number of bonds - The number of nonbonding electrons.

The element listed furthest to the left.

Odd electron species, incomplete octets, and expanded valence shells.

Usually, a free radical (single lone pair) is highly reactive.

Elements to the left of the carbon column may have fewer than 8 electrons.

Elements below the carbon row can have an expanded octet because of the larger atom size.

Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, and Neon.

Shapes:

What is VSEPR theory and what does it state?

What are shapes determined by?

What is the electron geometry shape name determined by?

What will the molecular geometry shape be changed by?

What do electron groups refer to?

The valence shell electron pair repulsion states that electron repulsion causes electron groups to be spatially distributed as far as possible.

The number of electron groups.

The number of electron groups.

The number of lone pairs.

A single bond, a double bond, a triple bond, a lone pair, and odd electrons.

Electron/Molecular Geometry: (Draw the graphical representation for practice)

State the following for each scenario: Electron Geometry Name | Molecular Geometry Name | Ideal Bond Angles | Polar/Nonpolar?

A. 2 Electron Groups | 0 Lone Pairs

B. 3 Electron Groups | 0 Lone Pairs

C. 3 Electron Groups | 1 Lone Pair

D. 4 Electron Groups | 0 Lone Pair

E. 4 Electron Groups | 1 Lone Pair

F. 4 Electron Groups | 2 Lone Pair

G. 5 Electron Groups | 0 Lone Pair

H. 5 Electron Groups | 1 Lone Pair

I. 5 Electron Groups | 2 Lone Pair

J. 5 Electron Groups | 3 Lone Pair

K. 6 Electron Groups | 0 Lone Pair

L. 6 Electron Groups | 1 Lone Pair

M. 6 Electron Groups | 2 Lone Pair

A. Linear | Linear | 180 Degrees | Nonpolar if both groups are the same

B. Trigonal Planar | Trigonal Planar | 120 Degrees | Nonpolar if all 3 groups are the same

C. Trigonal Planar | Bent | 120 Degrees | Polar

D. Tetrahedral | Tetrahedral | 109.5 Degrees | Nonpolar if all 4 groups are the same

E. Tetrahedral | Trigonal Pyramidal | 109.5 Degrees | Polar

F. Tetrahedral | Bent | 109.5 Degrees | Polar

G. Trigonal Bipyramidal | Trigonal Bipyramidal | 90 and 120 Degrees | Nonpolar all parts are the same

H. Trigonal Bipyramidal | Seesaw | 90 and 120 Degrees | Polar

I. Trigonal Bipyramidal | T-shaped | 90 Degrees | Polar

J. Trigonal Bipyramidal | Linear | 180 Degrees | Nonpolar if groups are the same

K. Octahedral | Octahedral | 90 Degrees | Nonpolar if groups on the same axis are identical

L. Octahedral | Square Pyramidal | 90 Degrees | Polar

M. Octahedral | Square Planar | 90 Degrees | Nonpolar if groups on the axis are the same

Polarity:

What do polar covalent and ionic bonds lead to?

What does “like dissolves like” refer to?

Molecules with a net dipole where electron distribution is asymmetric.

Polar molecules will mix with other polar molecules. Nonpolar molecules will mix with other nonpolar molecules.

Bond Order/Bond Length:

Define bond length.

Define bond order.

Define bond energy.

What is the relationship between bond order, bond energy, and bond length?

The distance between nuclei or approximately the sum of the covalent radii.

A measure of multiple bonds.

The potential energy stored within the bond.

As bond energy and bond order increase, bond length decreases. A low bond order will have weak, long bonds. A high bond order will have a strong, short bond.

Molecular Orbital Theory:

What does the molecular orbital theory help explain?

What are the 2 types of bonds within the molecular orbital theory?

How are sigma bonds formed?

How are pi bonds formed?

What is bonding visually described by in the orbitals?

What is antibonding visually described by in the orbitals?

How is bond order determined in molecular orbital diagrams?

What is the pattern for p orbitals for N and lower atomic numbers?

What is the pattern for p orbitals for O and higher atomic numbers?

Where electrons are located, what they’re doing, and where unpaired electrons are in the molecule.

Sigma bonds and Pi bonds.

They are formed along the internuclear axis due to head-on interactions. They can undergo free rotation about the bond axis.

They are formed above and below the internuclear axis due to side-on interactions. They cannot rotate along the bond axis or else it will break.

Constructive interactions where the same shaded orbitals are touching or adjacent to each other.

Destructive interactions where opposite shaded orbitals are touching or adjacent to each other.

(Number of bonding electrons - Number of antibonding electrons)/2

2-1-2-1

1-2-2-1

Valence Bond Theory:

What is hybridization?

Provide the number of electron groups, number of sigma bonds, number of pi bonds, shape, and ideal bond angles for each hybrid:

A. s or 2p

B. sp

C. sp²

D. sp³

E. sp³d

F. sp³d²

How many sigma and pi bonds does a single bond have?

How about a double bond?

How about a triple bond?

What are delocalized electrons/resonance structures?

The combination of s and p orbitals.

A. 1 | 1 | 0 | Linear | 180 Degrees

B. 2 | 2 | 2 | Linear | 180 Degrees

C. 3 | 3 | 1 or 0 | Trigonal Planar | 120

D. 4 | 4 | 0 | Tetrahedral | 109.5 Degrees

E. 5 | 5 | 0 | Trigonal Bipyramid | 90, 120, and 180 Degrees

F. 6 | 6 | 0 | Octahedral | 90 and 180 Degrees

1 sigma and 0 pi.

1 sigma and 1 pi.

1 sigma and 2 pi.

When an electron can move around a molecule.

Liquids:

What happens to a gas when temperature decreases and pressure increases?

What are the 5 characteristics of liquids?

A property of liquids is surface tension. Define it.

What are the two types of forces in liquids?

What are cohesive forces?

What are adhesive forces?

Define viscosity.

It changes to a liquid or solid.

(1) An indefinite shape, but fixed volume. (2) They readily flow depending on viscosity. (3) They do not readily undergo compression or expansion. (4) The density of a liquid is greater than gas. (5) Soluble liquids will mix uniformly.

Resistance for the surface of the liquid to an external force because of the attractive forces between molecules.

Cohesive forces and adhesive forces.

Forces between like molecules.

Forces between unlike molecules.

Resistance to the flow of a liquid as a result of cohesive forces.

Vaporization:

What is vaporization and what is it preferred at?

When will liquids boil in regards to pressure?

Is vaporization an endothermic or exothermic process?

A liquid becoming a gas is preferred at high temperatures and high surface areas.

When the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, which is usually 1 atm.

An endothermic process.

Solids:

What are the 4 common properties of solids?

What does each phase change involve?

Draw the phase diagrams.

(1) Maintain a definite shape and definite volume. (2) Can be crystalline or noncrystalline. (3) Solids do not effectively compress or expand. (4) The density of a solid is greater than that of a liquid and gas.

An enthalpy change.

Phases:

Solid to Liquid?

Liquid to Solid?

Liquid to Gas?

Gas to Liquid?

Solid to Gas?

Gas to Solid?

Define the triple point.

Define a super critical fluid.

Define supercooled liquids.

Define superheated liquids.

Define isobar.

Define isotherm.

Melting

Freezing/Fusion

Vaporization

Condensation

Sublimation

Deposition

Where all 3 phases exist simultaneously.

A fluid that is neither a gas or liquid, but exists as both.

Cold liquids with no place to form crystals.

Hot liquids with no place for bubbles to form.

Pressure that is held constant.

Temperature that is held constant.

Phase Change Equations:

∆H_vaporization = -∆H_condensation

∆H_fusion = ∆H_melting

∆H_sub = -∆H_dep = ∆H_fusion + ∆H_vap

Memorize

Intermolecular Forces:

Define polarizability/Van der Waals/London Dispersion Forces.

What are intramolecular forces?

What elements will hydrogen bonding occur with?

Rank the strength of intermolecular forces from strongest to weakest.

What happens as the number of forces increases?

The large size of atoms/molecules allows for increased chances of instantaneous dipoles.

Forces within the same molecule.

Nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine atoms with lone pairs.

Ionic - H bonding - Dipoles - London Dispersion Forces

The boiling point, viscosity, and surface tension will increase and the partial pressure of vaporization will decrease.

Solutions and Their Physical Properties:

What is the formula for solution?

Formula for molarity (M)?

Formula for mass %?

Formula for volume %?

Formula for mass/volume %?

What does 1 ppm (part per million) equal?

What does 1 ppb (part per billion) equal?

What does 1 ppt (part per trillion) equal?

What does 1 ppt (part per thousand) equal?

Formula for mole fraction (X_i)?

Formula for mole percent?

Formula for molality (m)?

Why is molality better than molarity?

Formula for noamlity (N)?

Formula for solubility?

Solvent + Solute

mols of solute/liters of solution

mass of solute/mass of solution x 100

volume of solute/volume of solution x 100

mass of solute (g)/volume of solution (mL) x 100

1 mg/1 L

1 µg/1 L

1 ng/1 L

1 g/1 L

mol i/total mol solution

X_i x 100

mol solute/kg solvent

Because molarity is temperature-dependent since volume can change.

Molarity x the number of equivalents, which refers to the number of H+ or OH-.

g of solute dissolved/mass or volume of solvent

Intermolecular Forces in Solutions:

What does miscible versus immiscible mean?

What does mixing solutions involve?

What are the 3 factors for mixing solutions? Are the enthalpies endothermic or exothermic?

What happens when ∆H_solution nears 0?

A graph has a curved line. The x-axis is temperature. The y-axis is solubility. What happens on the line?

Under the line is an undersaturated solution. What does it mean?

Above the line is an oversaturated solution. What does it mean?

What are the three factors that affect solubility?

How does temperature affect solubility?

What about pressure?

What is the formula for Henry’s Law

When molecules homogenously mix versus when they don’t.

An enthalpy change (∆H_solution).

(1) Breaking the solute into individual components/Expanding the solute, which is endothermic due to bond breakage; (2) Overcoming forces in the solvent to make room for the solute/Expanding the solvent, which is endothermic; (3) Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form a solution, which is exothermic

A solution forms.

Dissolution and crystallization occur in equilibrium.

Solvent can dissolve more solute than available.

There is more solute than equilibrium allows, so there is unstable solution that can result in crystallization if perturbed.

(1) Structure; (2) Temperature; (3) Pressure.

An increase in temperature will increase solubility with solids. An increase in temperature will decrease solubility with gasses.

With gases in liquids, an increase in pressure will increase solubility.

c = KP; concentration/solubility = constant x pressure of a gas

Liquids and Gases in Solutions:

What is osmotic pressure?

What is the formula for osomotic pressure?

What is the Van’t Hoff Factor?

When a solute is separated from a pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane, the pure solvent will pass into the solution by osmosis resulting in a large pressure.

π = imRT; osmotic pressure = van’t hoff factor x molarity x ideal gas law constant x temperature

How many ions/particles will dissolve in a solution.

Freezing Point Depression and Building Point Elevation:

What are colligative properties?

What is the formula for colligative properties?

FP depression and BP elevation that occurs due to physical properties

∆T = i x K x m; Change in temperature = van’t hoff factor x freezing depression or boiling elevation x molality