Biology 12 unit 2

What leads to the increase of fluidity in the cell membrane?

• More phospholipids in the membrane

• Unsaturated phospholipids

• The presence of cholesterol in the membrane

What factors decrease the fluidity in the cell membrane?

• More proteins in the membrane

• More Saturated phospholipids

What is passive transport?

Does not require energy

Includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

What is active transport?

Requires energy

Includes endocytosis ( phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis

What are transport proteins?

A protein that spans the membrane may provide a Hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute

Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane

What are enzymes?

A protein built into the membrane, may be an enzyme with its active site, exposed to substances in the adjacent Solution

In some cases, several enzymes are ordered in the membrane as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway

What is a hypertonic solution?

A solution where the concentration of solute outside a cell is higher than not found inside the cell

What is a hypotonic solution?

A solution where the concentration of solute outside the cell is lower than that found inside the cell

What is an isotonic solution?

A solution where the concentration of a solute molecules outside a cell is equal to the concentration of solute molecules inside the cell

What is concentration gradient?

A difference in the number of molecules or ions of a substance between adjoining region without the addition of energy molecules tend to diffuse from the area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

What is metabolism?

The total of all chemical processes occurring within an organism it consists of all catabolic and anabolic processes

How is the metabolic pathway of an organism arranged?

It is arranged, so that energy released from the downhill reaction of a cannibalism can be transferred to an anabolic pathway to drive uphill reactions that require energy

What is energy?

• The ability to do work

• The ability to move matter in a Direction it would not otherwise move if left alone

What is kinetic energy?

• Possessed by anything that moves

• The energy of motion

What is potential energy?

• Energy that matter possesses because of its location or arrangement

• Stored energy

• Stored in molecules because of the arrangement of atoms that are bonded together

What is thermodynamics?

The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created nor destroyed

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

Every process increases the entropy of the universe

What is entropy?

A measure of disordered or randomness symbolized by S

What is the equation for heat of reaction?

Amount of energy required to break reactant bonds. Subtract amount of energy released when product bonds form.

What is enthalpy?

The heat content of a molecule, the total potential energy of a molecule Heat is the change in enthalpy of the reaction mixture

What is exothermic?

• Heat goes

• A reaction that releases heat

• Increases the temperature of the surroundings

• The products have less enthalpy Then the reactants

What is endothermic?

• A reaction that absorbs/requires heat

• Decrease the temperature of the surroundings

What is a spontaneous reaction?

• Can occur without any outside help

• Occur without the addition of external energy

• An example is the downhill movement of water

What is a non-spontaneous reaction?

• Cannot occur on their own

• Need an external energy source

• An example, the uphill movement of water requires a windmill

What terms go with -g

• A spontaneous reaction

• Exothermic

• Exergonic

• Catabolic

What terms go with +g

• A non-spontaneous reaction

• Endothermic

• Endergonic

• Anabolic

What is an enzyme?

All enzymes are proteins with 3-D native confirmation Tertiary shape

They’re very specific

What is activation energy?

The activation energy is the energy required to get the reaction started before it is possible to form new chemical bonds. It is necessary to break the existing bonds in this requires energy.

What is a catalysis

The process of influencing chemical bonds in a way that lowers the activation energy substances that perform this are catalyst they make the reaction rate fast faster, catalyst reduce the amount of activation energy needed in the speed of the reaction

What specifically are Enzymes

• Perform Catalysis in living organisms

• Are proteins with Specialized shapes

• Lower activation energy of reaction so that reaction can be faster

• Remain unchanged in the reaction are reusable

• Names end in ASE

• Specificity

• Govern the metabolism of the cell

What is an induced fit?

As a substance enters, the active site, its induce the enzyme to change it shapes slightly so that the active site fits even more snuggly around the substrate

How do enzymes lower the activation energy?

The amino acid groups of the enzyme, chemically interact with the substrate the amino acid stresses a Particular bond on the substrate, thus lowering the activation energy necessary to break the bond

What are cofactors/coenzymes

Some enzymes in order to work need an additional molecule called a cofactor such as metals ions, such as zinc, iron or copper locked in an active site cofactors are in organic when they are non-protein organic molecules like vitamins they are called coenzymes

What are inhibitors?

Chemicals that bind to an enzyme, change shape and shuts off the activity

What is a competitive inhibitor?

Someone inhibitors resemble the substrate and thus compete for the enzymes active site

What is a non-competitive inhibitor

Inhibit the enzyme by acting at an allosteric Site A regular site remote from the active site it acts by changing the confirmation of the enzyme show. The active site is no longer functional.

What is feedback inhibition?

The switching off of an enzyme by the product of the reactant when enough product has been formed the product feeds back off, inhibits the enzyme

What are activators?

Sometimes a change in shape is necessary for catalyst to occur

What is precursor activation?

An accumulation of substrate activates an enzyme in the metabolic chain

What are the allosteric regulations?

Allosteric site- A receptor site remote from the active site, Usually found in proteins constructed from two or more polypeptide chains, The complex oscillates Between one state, active and inactive

Active state-Occurs when an activator binds to an allosteric site

Inactive state-Occurs when an inhibitor binds to an Allosteric site

What is cellular respiration?

Is the process by which cells like animal cells, plant cells, bacteria cells, etc. release the Chemical energy in food like glucose

In aerobic respiration, what is the first step?

The first stage of aerobic respiration is glycolysis or glucose molecules are broken down to create ATP in the cell cytoplasm although the process consumes two ATP molecules it produces four more as well as two other substances pyruvate and NADH

What is the second stage in aerobic respiration?

This occurs in the mitochondria of the cell pyruvate is used to create acetyl co enzyme a in carbon dioxide

What is the third stage in Aerobic respiration

This is known as the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle in this stage acetyl coenzyme a is used to create more NADH as well as FADH2 carbon dioxide and an additional ATP molecule

What happens in the final stage of aerobic respiration?

NADHFADH and oxygen are used to create massive amounts of ATP through electron transfer the stage also creates water molecules

What is a redox reaction?

High energy electrons are passed from molecule to molecule one molecule loses electrons. Another molecule gains electrons electrons often travel together with a proton.

What is the oxidation part of a redox reaction?

• Loss of electrons

• Loss of hydrogen

• Gain Oxygen

What is the reduction part of a redox reaction?

• Gain electrons

• Gain hydrogen

• Loss of oxygen

What is N AD+

• A special electronic acceptor it is reduced to NADH

• Functions as a co-enzyme a non-protein that is required as an assistant for a catalyst function of certain enzymes and assists enzymes in the transfer of electrons

• An enzyme delivers to electrons in one proton to NAD another proton is released into the surrounding solution

What is FAD?

A co enzyme similar to NAD

Is reduced to FADH2

What is glycolysis?

• The splitting of sugar

• Occurs in the cytoplasm

• Reaction needs an enzyme

• Occurs under aerobic or anaerobic conditions

What is the first step in glycolysis?

ATP phosphorites glucose to G6 P

What is the second step in glycolysis?

G6 P rearranges to F6 P

What is the third step in glycolysis?

ATP phosphorites F6P2 F16 BP

What is steps four and five of Glycolysis

F1 6BP is split into DHAP and G3P then DHAP is converted into G3 P resulting into G3 P molecules

What is the sixth step in glycolysis?

Two G3 P are converted to 2BPG hydrogen atoms reduced NAD to NADH

What is the seventh step in glycolysis?

BPG is converted to three PG a high energy phosphate group BPG phosphorites ADP To ATP

What is the eight step in glycolysis?

Three PG is rearranged Two PG

What is the ninth stepping glycolysis?

Two PG is converted to PEP by removal of a water molecule

What is the 10th step in glycolysis?

PEP is converted to pyruvate the high energy phosphate group on PEP phosphate ATP to ATP two pyruvate molecules are produced and some free energy is released in the form of ATP in NADH

What is alcohol fermentation?

• Occurs in the absence of oxygen

• Occurs in yeast cells

• NAD is regenerated for glycolysis

• A decarboxylation occurs

What is lactic acid fermentation?

• Occurs in the absence of oxygen

• Occurs in muscle cells

• NAD is regenerated for glycolysis

What is the first steps in the Krebs cycle ?

Acetyl co-a complex two carbon fragment bonds to the four carbon oxalate acid. The co-a complex is released to pick up another two carbon fragment.

What is the second step in the Citric acid cycle?

Water is removed and then added to produce an isometric change in the molecule

What is the third step in the citric acid cycle?

carbon dioxide is lost in NAD plus is reduced to NADH 1H is lost

What is the four step in The citric acid cycle

Carbon dioxide is lost in NAD plus is reduced to NADH 1H plus is lost coenzyme a is attached with an unstable high energy bond

What is the fifth step in the citric acid cycle?

Substrate level phosphorylation occurs, which causes the formation of GTP and then ATP

What is the sixth step in the citric acid cycle?

FAD is reduced to FADH2. This reaction occurs earlier in the cycle then the reaction in which NAD plus is reduced to NADH1H plus is also lost.

What is the seventh step in the citric acid cycle?

NAD plus is reduced to NADH1H is also lost this reaction occurs later in the cycle then the reaction in which FAD is reduced to FADH2

What is the eighth step in the citric acid cycle?

Water is added

What is the electron transport chain?

The chain that uses a downhill electron flow to pump energy and protons across the inner membrane into the inner membrane space storing energy in the form of protein gradient

In the crab cycle, how many Redox reactions take place and how many NADH and FADH2 are produced

Six redox in total

3NADH

2FADH2

In glycolysis, how many ATP are produced

Two

In the Krebs cycle, how many ATP are produced

Two

In the electron transport chain, how many ATP are produced

32

What is the order of ATP produced?

Two

Four

Six

18

For

Two

What is decarboxylation?

A chemical reaction that eliminates a carboxy group and liberates carbon dioxide

What is a Acetyl coenzyme a made of?

Amino acids and fats

What is key in photosystem two

P6 80

Water is converted to half oxygen

Solar energy is converted to ATP

What is key in photosystem one

First system to be created

Solar energy to NADPH

P 700

What are the accessory pigments?

It acts as an antenna

Chlorophyl a

Chlorophyl B

xan

Car

What is the cycle called in dark reaction?

The Calvin cycle

What are the two wavelengths most effectively absorbed by chlorophyll?

Blue and red

What are pigments?

Substances that absorb visible light different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths

What is an action spectrum

It profiles the performance of different wavelength with respect to photosynthesis. It is prepared by illuminating chloroplast with different colours of light, and then plotting wavelengths against some measure of photosynthetic rate.

What are accessory pigments in which ones are they?

Only Chlorophyl a participates directly in light reactions however, other pigments can be absorbed and transferred the energy to chlorophyl a these are called accessory pigments. The accessory pigments are chlorophyl B and carotenoid they absorb protons that chlorophyl a does not.