Studied by 2 people
What leads to the increase of fluidity in the cell membrane?
More phospholipids in the membrane
Unsaturated phospholipids
The presence of cholesterol in the membrane
What factors decrease the fluidity in the cell membrane?
More proteins in the membrane
More Saturated phospholipids
What is passive transport?
Does not require energy
Includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion
What is active transport?
Requires energy
Includes endocytosis ( phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis
What are transport proteins?
A protein that spans the membrane may provide a Hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute
Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane
What are enzymes?
A protein built into the membrane, may be an enzyme with its active site, exposed to substances in the adjacent Solution
In some cases, several enzymes are ordered in the membrane as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway
What is a hypertonic solution?
A solution where the concentration of solute outside a cell is higher than not found inside the cell
What is a hypotonic solution?
A solution where the concentration of solute outside the cell is lower than that found inside the cell
What is an isotonic solution?
A solution where the concentration of a solute molecules outside a cell is equal to the concentration of solute molecules inside the cell
What is concentration gradient?
A difference in the number of molecules or ions of a substance between adjoining region without the addition of energy molecules tend to diffuse from the area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
What is metabolism?
The total of all chemical processes occurring within an organism it consists of all catabolic and anabolic processes
How is the metabolic pathway of an organism arranged?
It is arranged, so that energy released from the downhill reaction of a cannibalism can be transferred to an anabolic pathway to drive uphill reactions that require energy
What is energy?
The ability to do work
The ability to move matter in a Direction it would not otherwise move if left alone
What is kinetic energy?
Possessed by anything that moves
The energy of motion
What is potential energy?
Energy that matter possesses because of its location or arrangement
Stored energy
Stored in molecules because of the arrangement of atoms that are bonded together
What is thermodynamics?
The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created nor destroyed
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
Every process increases the entropy of the universe
What is entropy?
A measure of disordered or randomness symbolized by S
What is the equation for heat of reaction?
Amount of energy required to break reactant bonds. Subtract amount of energy released when product bonds form.
What is enthalpy?
The heat content of a molecule, the total potential energy of a molecule Heat is the change in enthalpy of the reaction mixture
What is exothermic?
Heat goes
A reaction that releases heat
Increases the temperature of the surroundings
The products have less enthalpy Then the reactants
What is endothermic?
A reaction that absorbs/requires heat
Decrease the temperature of the surroundings
What is a spontaneous reaction?
Can occur without any outside help
Occur without the addition of external energy
An example is the downhill movement of water
What is a non-spontaneous reaction?
Cannot occur on their own
Need an external energy source
An example, the uphill movement of water requires a windmill
What terms go with -g
A spontaneous reaction
Exothermic
Exergonic
Catabolic
What terms go with +g
A non-spontaneous reaction
Endothermic
Endergonic
Anabolic
What is an enzyme?
All enzymes are proteins with 3-D native confirmation Tertiary shape
They’re very specific
What is activation energy?
The activation energy is the energy required to get the reaction started before it is possible to form new chemical bonds. It is necessary to break the existing bonds in this requires energy.
What is a catalysis
The process of influencing chemical bonds in a way that lowers the activation energy substances that perform this are catalyst they make the reaction rate fast faster, catalyst reduce the amount of activation energy needed in the speed of the reaction
What specifically are Enzymes
Perform Catalysis in living organisms
Are proteins with Specialized shapes
Lower activation energy of reaction so that reaction can be faster
Remain unchanged in the reaction are reusable
Names end in ASE
Specificity
Govern the metabolism of the cell
What is an induced fit?
As a substance enters, the active site, its induce the enzyme to change it shapes slightly so that the active site fits even more snuggly around the substrate
How do enzymes lower the activation energy?
The amino acid groups of the enzyme, chemically interact with the substrate the amino acid stresses a Particular bond on the substrate, thus lowering the activation energy necessary to break the bond
What are cofactors/coenzymes
Some enzymes in order to work need an additional molecule called a cofactor such as metals ions, such as zinc, iron or copper locked in an active site cofactors are in organic when they are non-protein organic molecules like vitamins they are called coenzymes
What are inhibitors?
Chemicals that bind to an enzyme, change shape and shuts off the activity
What is a competitive inhibitor?
Someone inhibitors resemble the substrate and thus compete for the enzymes active site
What is a non-competitive inhibitor
Inhibit the enzyme by acting at an allosteric Site A regular site remote from the active site it acts by changing the confirmation of the enzyme show. The active site is no longer functional.
What is feedback inhibition?
The switching off of an enzyme by the product of the reactant when enough product has been formed the product feeds back off, inhibits the enzyme
What are activators?
Sometimes a change in shape is necessary for catalyst to occur
What is precursor activation?
An accumulation of substrate activates an enzyme in the metabolic chain
What are the allosteric regulations?
Allosteric site- A receptor site remote from the active site, Usually found in proteins constructed from two or more polypeptide chains, The complex oscillates Between one state, active and inactive
Active state-Occurs when an activator binds to an allosteric site
Inactive state-Occurs when an inhibitor binds to an Allosteric site
What is cellular respiration?
Is the process by which cells like animal cells, plant cells, bacteria cells, etc. release the Chemical energy in food like glucose
In aerobic respiration, what is the first step?
The first stage of aerobic respiration is glycolysis or glucose molecules are broken down to create ATP in the cell cytoplasm although the process consumes two ATP molecules it produces four more as well as two other substances pyruvate and NADH
What is the second stage in aerobic respiration?
This occurs in the mitochondria of the cell pyruvate is used to create acetyl co enzyme a in carbon dioxide
What is the third stage in Aerobic respiration
This is known as the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle in this stage acetyl coenzyme a is used to create more NADH as well as FADH2 carbon dioxide and an additional ATP molecule
What happens in the final stage of aerobic respiration?
NADHFADH and oxygen are used to create massive amounts of ATP through electron transfer the stage also creates water molecules
What is a redox reaction?
High energy electrons are passed from molecule to molecule one molecule loses electrons. Another molecule gains electrons electrons often travel together with a proton.
What is the oxidation part of a redox reaction?
Loss of electrons
Loss of hydrogen
Gain Oxygen
What is the reduction part of a redox reaction?
Gain electrons
Gain hydrogen
Loss of oxygen
What is N AD+
A special electronic acceptor it is reduced to NADH
Functions as a co-enzyme a non-protein that is required as an assistant for a catalyst function of certain enzymes and assists enzymes in the transfer of electrons
An enzyme delivers to electrons in one proton to NAD another proton is released into the surrounding solution
What is FAD?
A co enzyme similar to NAD
Is reduced to FADH2
What is glycolysis?
The splitting of sugar
Occurs in the cytoplasm
Reaction needs an enzyme
Occurs under aerobic or anaerobic conditions
What is the first step in glycolysis?
ATP phosphorites glucose to G6 P
What is the second step in glycolysis?
G6 P rearranges to F6 P
What is the third step in glycolysis?
ATP phosphorites F6P2 F16 BP
What is steps four and five of Glycolysis
F1 6BP is split into DHAP and G3P then DHAP is converted into G3 P resulting into G3 P molecules
What is the sixth step in glycolysis?
Two G3 P are converted to 2BPG hydrogen atoms reduced NAD to NADH
What is the seventh step in glycolysis?
BPG is converted to three PG a high energy phosphate group BPG phosphorites ADP To ATP
What is the eight step in glycolysis?
Three PG is rearranged Two PG
What is the ninth stepping glycolysis?
Two PG is converted to PEP by removal of a water molecule
What is the 10th step in glycolysis?
PEP is converted to pyruvate the high energy phosphate group on PEP phosphate ATP to ATP two pyruvate molecules are produced and some free energy is released in the form of ATP in NADH
What is alcohol fermentation?
Occurs in the absence of oxygen
Occurs in yeast cells
NAD is regenerated for glycolysis
A decarboxylation occurs
What is lactic acid fermentation?
Occurs in the absence of oxygen
Occurs in muscle cells
NAD is regenerated for glycolysis
What is the first steps in the Krebs cycle ?
Acetyl co-a complex two carbon fragment bonds to the four carbon oxalate acid. The co-a complex is released to pick up another two carbon fragment.
What is the second step in the Citric acid cycle?
Water is removed and then added to produce an isometric change in the molecule
What is the third step in the citric acid cycle?
carbon dioxide is lost in NAD plus is reduced to NADH 1H is lost
What is the four step in The citric acid cycle
Carbon dioxide is lost in NAD plus is reduced to NADH 1H plus is lost coenzyme a is attached with an unstable high energy bond
What is the fifth step in the citric acid cycle?
Substrate level phosphorylation occurs, which causes the formation of GTP and then ATP
What is the sixth step in the citric acid cycle?
FAD is reduced to FADH2. This reaction occurs earlier in the cycle then the reaction in which NAD plus is reduced to NADH1H plus is also lost.
What is the seventh step in the citric acid cycle?
NAD plus is reduced to NADH1H is also lost this reaction occurs later in the cycle then the reaction in which FAD is reduced to FADH2
What is the eighth step in the citric acid cycle?
Water is added
What is the electron transport chain?
The chain that uses a downhill electron flow to pump energy and protons across the inner membrane into the inner membrane space storing energy in the form of protein gradient
In the crab cycle, how many Redox reactions take place and how many NADH and FADH2 are produced
Six redox in total
3NADH
2FADH2
In glycolysis, how many ATP are produced
Two
In the Krebs cycle, how many ATP are produced
Two
In the electron transport chain, how many ATP are produced
32
What is the order of ATP produced?
Two
Four
Six
18
For
Two
What is decarboxylation?
A chemical reaction that eliminates a carboxy group and liberates carbon dioxide
What is a Acetyl coenzyme a made of?
Amino acids and fats
What is key in photosystem two
P6 80
Water is converted to half oxygen
Solar energy is converted to ATP
What is key in photosystem one
First system to be created
Solar energy to NADPH
P 700
What are the accessory pigments?
It acts as an antenna
Chlorophyl a
Chlorophyl B
xan
Car
What is the cycle called in dark reaction?
The Calvin cycle
What are the two wavelengths most effectively absorbed by chlorophyll?
Blue and red
What are pigments?
Substances that absorb visible light different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths
What is an action spectrum
It profiles the performance of different wavelength with respect to photosynthesis. It is prepared by illuminating chloroplast with different colours of light, and then plotting wavelengths against some measure of photosynthetic rate.
What are accessory pigments in which ones are they?
Only Chlorophyl a participates directly in light reactions however, other pigments can be absorbed and transferred the energy to chlorophyl a these are called accessory pigments. The accessory pigments are chlorophyl B and carotenoid they absorb protons that chlorophyl a does not.
