EXAM № 1 TERMS | PSY-P 101

Psychology

The scientific study of “mental processes” (all of our perceptions, thoughts, feelings and decisions throughout our lives).

Empiricism

The idea that knowledge comes directly from experience.

Tabula Rasa

Lit. “blank slate” | The idea that all people develop solely through their experiences.

Dualism

The belief that the mind and body are separate. The body is made out of ordinary matter and the mind is not.

Monism

The idea that all things consist of matter and energy, including the mind and body. The mind is a product of the nervous system and the connections of the brain form the experience of the mind. Most psychologists subscribe to this idea.

Nativism

The idea that certain kinds of knowledge are inborn or innate.

Natural Selection

The idea that the best fit (i.e. strongest/smartest individual) survives and passes on their genes.

Mutation

Refers to spontaneous genetic change.

Adaptation

Refers to selective advantages that are selectively bred into a species.

Evolution

The gradual change in the structure and physiology of a species as a result of natural selection.

Stabilizing selection

A kind of natural selection that eliminates extremes of a trait.

Directional selection

A type of natural selection that selects for an extreme of a particular trait.

Divergent (disruptive) selection

A type of natural selection that splits the population into extremes, leading to speciation (new species).

Structuralism

An early school of psychology, pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, where individuals try to understand the mind by breaking it down into basic parts.

Systematic Introspection

An early technique, resulting from Structuralism, used to study the mind that required people to look inward and describe their own experiences.

Functionalism

A school of psychology, championed by William James and James Angell, that advocated for studying psychology by focusing on the purpose of mental processes and behaviors. This school is now referred to as evolutionary psychology.

Biological approach

An approach to psychology that involves studying psychology in terms of how thoughts and behaviors are influenced by biological factors in the body (hormones, genetics, neurotransmitters, et cetera). Ivan Pavlov was an important figure in the development of this approach.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology, developed by John Watson, that proposed that the only proper subject matter of psychology is observable behavior rather than immediate conscious experience. B.F. Skinner was also an important figure in the development of this school.

Psychodynamic approach

An approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, that focused on how are mental processes are affected by childhood and by thoughts and fears (of which we are unaware).

Psychoanalysis

Refers to the belief that the mind and its contents (the psyche) must be analyzed extensively before treatment can begin. Problems are best solved through insight and determining unconscious influences on behavior (i.e. dreams and unconscious slips of the mind (Freudian slips)).

Sociocultural approach

An approach to psychology, pioneered by Kurt Lewin, that considers how social dynamics and culture interact in our everyday lives (and influence a person’s cognitive development). Lev Vygotsky was a prominent figure in developing this approach.

Humanistic psychology

A field of psychology, pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, that focuses on peoples’ unique capacity for self-awareness, choice responsibility and growth. Set up as a reaction to Freud’s theories: People are basically good, aren’t helpless animals controlled by unconscious forces and control their own destinies.

Cognitive approach

An approach to psychology, pioneered by Daniel Kahneman, that focuses on inner mental processes such as memory, decision-making and thought structures.

Action research

Application of psychology, developed by Kurt Lewin, to solving problems and making the world a better place.

Eclectic approach

Refers to a practice of most modern psychologists of selecting information from several sources rather than relying entirely on a single perspective or school of thought.

School psychologists…

Trained to apply their expertise in mental health, learning, and behavior to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviorally and emotionally.

Biological psychologists…

Approach psychological questions by looking at the brain and body. May investigate humans or non-human animals.

Developmental psychologists…

Study human growth and change over the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.

Counseling psychologists…

Work with people experiencing life problems such as marriage, family problems or other life stressors.

Industrial-Organizational psychologists…

Often contracted out to work with companies and businesses to help with new recruitment or employee retainment, improving company morale, or helping establish effective lines of communication.

Forensic psychologists…

Provide expert testimony to serve as expert witnesses in courtroom trials. They can provide counseling to victims or people convicted of crimes and can work with law enforcement to help with crisis management and to understand the motives and emotions of people who commit crimes.

Clinical psychologists…

Diagnose and treat psychological problems like depression, anxiety, phobias, schizophrenia, et cetera.

American Psychological Association

The largest professional organization for psychologists in North America, including over 50 subdivisions or interest groups.

The Five Pillars of Psychology

Biological, cognitive, developmental, social and personality, mental and physical health.

Introductory Psychology Initiative

The APA’s suggested approach to teaching high-quality initial, general psychology courses for the college level.

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered by many to be the founder of psychology as a separate scientific field of study.

ROTV

Reliable, observable, testable and valid.

Scientific method

A multi-step technique that generates empirical knowledge derived from systematic observations of the world.

Operational definition

Definitions that specify how concepts can be observed and measured.

Archival studies

This type of study involves analyzing materials that were originally gathered, produced or published for some other purpose.

External Validity

Refers to the extent to which results generalize to other situations or are representative of real life.

Descriptive research

Refers to a set of methods designed to observe and describe behavior.

Reactivity

Refers to when behavior changes as a result of the observation/experimentation process. High reactivity leads to low external validity.

Naturalistic observation

This type of research is a technique that records naturally occurring behavior as opposed to behavior produced in the laboratory.

Participant observation

Refers to when the observer attempts to become a part of the activities studied.

Case study

This type of research technique is used to focus on a single case, usually an individual.

Survey

This type of research technique is designed to gather limited amounts of information from many people.

Social desirability

The tendency for participants to provide dishonest survey answers because they want to look good to the researchers or to themselves.

Psychological tests

Refers to tests that are designed to measure differences among people. This is the most widely employed descriptive research technique and is often used to help diagnose psychological problems and verify treatment effectiveness.

Central Tendencies

The value(s) around which scores tend to cluster. Include mean (average), median (midpoint) and mode (most frequently occurring score).

Variability

Refers to how much scores in a set differ from one another.

Range

Refers to the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set.

Inferential Statistics

Used to decide if the behaviors recorded in a sample are representative of the larger population and whether the observed differences are due to random chance.

Correlation

A statistic that indicates whether two variables vary together in a systematic way. Does not indicate cause-and-effect relationships between those variables. Values range from -1 to 1. A value of 0 means weak/no relationship.

Positive correlation

Values tend towards 1. On a graph of two positively correlated variables, there would be a line with a positive slope.

Negative correlation

Values tend towards -1. On a graph of two negatively correlated variables, there would be a line with a negative slope.

No correlation

Values tend towards 0. On a graph of two non-correlated variables, there would be a line with no slope.

Experimental research

A technique in which the investigator actively manipulates the environment to observe its effects on behavior. Allows us to assess cause and effect.

Independent Variable (IV)

A variable that’s manipulated at the beginning of the study, creating groups that will be compared to each other.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome at the end of a study, to see how groups in an experiment had different results.

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled variable that changes along with the independent variable.

Quasi-Experiments

Research designs that compare preexisting groups to see how or if they differ in response to something in a study.

True Experiments

Research designs that compare groups created by the researcher using random assignment.

Within-Subject Design

An experiment with a single group of people who experience multiple treatments or conditions. Then, you compare reactions to each condition.

Between-Subject Design

An experiment with multiple groups where each group receives a different treatment.

T-Test

A type of statistical analysis that compares the outcomes of two groups, to see if they are different from each other. This test has two requirements. First, samples must be random. Second, the number of samples must be big enough to fairly represent a population.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

A type of statistical analysis that compares outcomes of three or more groups, to see if they are different from each other.

Single-blind study

A type of study where experimental participants do not know which conditions they have been assigned (experimental or control). Controls participant expectancies.

Double-blind study

A type of study where neither participants nor research observers are aware of who has been assigned to the experimental and control groups. Controls participant and experimenter expectancies.

Placebo

A treatment a participant believes is real, but is not.

Replication Crisis

The controversial finding that only about 40% of several classic psychology studies were successfully replicated multiple decades later.

Open Science

A movement to make science more transparent, cooperative, reproducible and honest.

Replication

Refers to getting the same findings over and over again, with different participants, in a different setting and with different researchers.

CRAAP

Currency - Is it still relevant/current?

Relevance - Does it relate to the topic of interest/target audience?

Authority - What are the credentials of the researchers/publishers?

Accuracy - Are conclusions supported by results? Free of bias? Was there peer review?

Purpose - What is the purpose of the study? The claim? Ulterior motives?

Pre-registration

The process of making hypotheses and experimental procedures published immediately, regardless of results.

Meta-analyses

The process of combining everyone’s sample data to make one big mega study, which involves pooling all data together to see which study of a group is most correct.

Big data

The idea of using large, publicly available and transparent data sets and running multiple studies off of them.

Informed Consent

A mandated component of human studies that includes the following guarantees:

1. Telling subjects what they are getting into, such as the risks of the experiment.

2. Keeping deception at a minimum (unless truth increases reactivity).

3. Debriefing - an opportunity to ask about the details of the experiment.

4. Confidentiality - maintaining anonymity and not publishing participant identities.

Internal Validity

Confidence that a study was designed correctly and the results mean what we think they mean.

Reliability

Refers to whether the measures in a study are consistent over time and place.

Random sampling

A method of choosing who will participate in a study from the larger group of interest in an unbiased, random way. Usually performed with computers.

Generalizable

A term describing studies in which the sample of participants represents the diversity in the larger population of interest.

Experimental group

The group(s) in the study that experience an intervention or change to see how that affects the participants.

Control group

A neutral or baseline group in the study, used as a comparison to what is being tested.

Scatterplot

Graph used to show a pattern between two continuous variables (a correlation).

Qualitative research

Usually carried out through surveys or interviews. The results are often presented in nonnumerical form, and patterns form across individual answers. Has the benefits of giving deeper insight into individual lives, honoring voices and experiences. However, the results cannot be analyzed with statistics.

Quantitative research

Any study in which the results are in numerical form. Patters emerge through mathematical or statistical analyses.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An oversight committee at most research institutions that must approve all aspects of the experiment involving human participants before it is conducted.

IACUC and AAALAC

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and Association for Assessment of Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care. Alongside the APA, these two ethics boards regulate the use of animals is research.

Regulations for animal use in studies

1. Humane and ethical treatment of all animals involved in research

2. Anesthetics and analgesics (if surgery is required)

3. Veterinarian care and inspections from regulatory boards

4. Extensive training for all staff

Methods of communicating scientific research

1. Publishing scientific research articles into journals

2. Presenting research at scientific conferences

3. Publishing an article into mainstream news

Participant variables

Characteristics of the participants in the study that may influence the results (i.e. age, race, etc.).

Situational variables

Features of the environment or situation in which a study takes place that could influence a participant’s behavior (i.e. temperature, noise level, etc.).

Construct

An abstract concept or variable within a research study.

Construct validity

The degree to which tests, surveys and other tools chosen for a study really measure what we think they’re measuring.

Hypothesis

A specific statement about the expected outcome of a study.

Operationalization

The process of specifying how a given construct will be defined and measured in a study.

Neurodiversity

The idea that there are a variety of ways peoples’ brains process information, function and lead to behaviors.

Neurons

Messenger cells that receive, integrate and transmit information through the body. Can communicate information in one of two ways. First, electrically through action potentials. Second, chemically through neurotransmitters.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.