Final Exam Flash Cards

A collection of vocabulary terms and definitions relevant to social psychology.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study to ensure natural responses.

Debriefing

Explaining the purpose of a study and any deception used, ensuring participants leave without distress.

Social Cognition

The way people think about, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others.

Automatic Thinking

Quick, nonconscious, effortless thinking that helps us make decisions efficiently.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information.

Accessibility

How readily available a schema is in our mind, making it more likely to be used.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representative Heuristic

Judging something based on how similar it is to a typical case, often ignoring base rate information.

Base Rate Fallacy

Ignoring statistical information in favor of anecdotal or representative information.

Barnum Effect

The tendency to believe vague, general personality descriptions apply personally.

Analytic Thinking

Focuses on objects and rules, common in Western cultures.

Holistic Thinking

Focuses on context and relationships, common in East Asian cultures.

Counterfactual Thinking

Mentally changing some aspect of the past to imagine what could have been.

Nonverbal Communication

Communication through body language, facial expressions, tone, and gestures.

Display Rules

Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display.

Thin-Slicing

Making quick, accurate judgments about people based on brief observations.

Primacy Effect

The tendency for the first information we learn about someone to influence our overall impression.

Belief Perseverance

Sticking with an initial judgment even after new information discredits it.

Heider’s Attribution Theory

The idea that people try to determine the causes of behavior as internal or external.

Covariation Model

A theory stating we make attributions by examining consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate personal traits and underestimate the situation in explaining others’ behavior.

Perceptual Salience

The tendency to focus on people rather than the situation when explaining behavior.

Two-Step Attribution Process

A quick internal attribution followed by a possible adjustment for the situation.

Self-Serving Attributions

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external ones.

Self-Concept

Our understanding of who we are, shaped by social experiences and cultural influences.

Independent Self

Views the self as separate, common in Western cultures.

Interdependent Self

Views the self as connected to others, common in Eastern cultures.

Introspection

Looking inward to examine our thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Self-Awareness Theory

Focusing on ourselves leads us to evaluate and compare our behavior to internal standards.

Self-Perception Theory

Learning about our attitudes and feelings by observing our behavior.

Overjustification Effect

When external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation.

Task-Contingent Rewards

Rewards given for task completion.

Performance-Contingent Rewards

Rewards based on how well a task is done.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Emotion is the result of arousal plus a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

Misattribution of Arousal

Mistakenly identifying the source of physiological arousal.

Social Comparison Theory

The idea that we learn about ourselves by comparing to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing to better-off others.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing to worse-off others.

Ingratiation

Using flattery to make oneself likable.

Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles to excuse potential failure.

Cognitively Based Attitudes

Attitudes formed from factual knowledge and beliefs.

Affectively Based Attitudes

Attitudes formed through emotions and values.

Behaviorally Based Attitudes

Attitudes formed from observations of behavior.

Explicit Attitudes

Conscious and reportable attitudes.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious and automatic attitudes.

Attitude Accessibility

The strength of the association between an object and an evaluation.

Theory of Planned Behavior

Theory that predicts intentional behaviors based on attitudes, norms, and perceived control.

Cognitive Dissonance

Changing attitudes to reduce discomfort from inconsistency between behavior and beliefs.

Yale Attitude Change Approach

Focuses on source, message, and audience factors in persuasion.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Theory involving central and peripheral routes to persuasion.

Central Route

Logic-based persuasion route when motivated and able to pay attention.

Peripheral Route

Surface cues-based persuasion when lacking motivation.

Conformity

Changing behavior due to real or imagined social pressure.

Social Norms

Rules for accepted and expected behavior in a group.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming when unsure and believing others are correct.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Private Acceptance

Truly believing the group is right.

Public Compliance

Outward conformity without internal belief.

Injunctive Norms

Perceptions of what ought to be done.

Descriptive Norms

Perceptions of what is done.

Boomerang Effect

When a persuasive message backfires and leads to opposite behavior.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Starting with a small request to increase agreement with a larger one.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Starting with a large request likely to be rejected, then asking for a smaller request.

Propaganda

Systematic attempt to manipulate beliefs and behaviors using social influence.

Obedience

Compliance with authority figures.

Groups

Two or more people who interact and are interdependent.

Group Cohesiveness

The strength of relationships linking group members.

Social Facilitation

Better performance on easy tasks and worse on hard tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing

Tendency to exert less effort in a group task.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and restraint in groups.

Process Loss

Group interactions that inhibit good problem solving.

Groupthink

Poor decision-making due to group pressure for harmony.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than individual ones.

Social Dilemma

A situation where individual benefit conflicts with group benefit.

Propinquity Effect

Tendency to become friends with people who are physically close.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure increases liking.

Functional Distance

The actual frequency of interactions based on physical layout.

Similarity

We like others who share similar beliefs and values.

Reciprocal Liking

We like people who like us back.

Halo Effect

Assuming attractive people possess other positive traits.

Social Exchange Theory

Relationship satisfaction depends on perceived rewards and costs.

Investment Model

Commitment is based on satisfaction, investment, and quality of alternatives.

Equity Theory

People are happiest when rewards and costs are balanced.

Exchange Relationships

Expect immediate reciprocity.

Communal Relationships

Respond to needs without expecting immediate repayment.

Sternberg’s Components of Love

Intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Types of Love

Liking, infatuation, empty love, romantic love, companionate love, fatuous love, consummate love, and no love.

Prosocial Behavior

Any act intended to benefit others.

Altruism

Helping others with no expectation of reward.

Kin Selection

Helping genetic relatives to pass on genes.

Norm of Reciprocity

Expectation that helping others will lead to future help.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Empathy leads to helping even without personal benefit.

Urban Overload Hypothesis

People in cities help less due to overstimulation.

Bystander Effect

More witnesses reduce likelihood of helping in emergencies.

Bystander Intervention Decision Tree

Five steps to determine whether to help in an emergency.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Assuming nothing is wrong because others aren't reacting.

Diffusion of Responsibility

In a group, individuals feel less personally responsible.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm someone.

Hostile Aggression

Fueled by anger.

Instrumental Aggression

Aggression to achieve a goal.