contemporary urban environments - HG unit 1 Y12

What is urbanisation?

the increase in the proportion of people who live in urban environments

By how much percent is the urban population expected to grow by 2050?

68% from 4.2 billion in 2018 (which was 55% of the total population)

What are some examples of the most urbanised regions today?

Northern America (82%) , Europe (74%) , Oceania (68%)

Why are urban areas important?

because these areas of many countries hold various important institutions, services and infrastructure

What are some examples of urban importance?

• They are the centre of the countries' economic activity like Mumbai

• They house government institutions like the Houses of Parliament in London

• They have increased transport links like airports or trains

What is a mega city?

a city / urban area with a population of 10 million+ people

What is a meta city?

a conurbation with more than 20 million people

What is urban growth?

an increase in the number of urban dwellers

What are some examples of megacities?

1. Tokyo, Japan with over 37 million people

2. Delhi in India with over 32 million people

What are the three main causes of urban growth?

• natural increase

• Industrialisation

• Migration

Why does natural increase cause urban growth?

Usually Y/A live in urban areas for higher payed jobs, better education and better social and cultural diversity

These Y/A also are at the age where they may have children, therefore increasing the population

Why does industrialisation cause urban growth?

As it provides many service and industry jobs having higher pay, better working conditions and better social environments which entices Y/As to move to urban areas

Why does migration cause urban growth?

It is the movement of people from rural to urban areas (which increases urban population0 due to push and pull factors

What are some examples of push factors leading to urbanisation?

• desertification due to climate change polluting the air which causes health issues

• natural disasters destroy buildings, homes, jobs and is very dangerous

• the mechanisation of agriculture means farmers lose their jobs and their source of income

What are some pull factors for urbanisation?

• there is many jobs in factories and service industries which have higher wages, better work conditions than in the rural areas

• there are better quality social provisions meaning there is better education and healthcare for example, meaning a higher quality of life and life expectancy

Why is Mumbai important?

• It is the centre of India's economic activity as it is the financial capital of India, generating 6% of India's GDP

• It is the Indian institute of foreign trade

• It holds India's biggest port which has 70% of Indian sea trade go through Mumbai

• 2.5 million students graduate from Indian unis with good grasp of English

Why is London important?

• It only holds 13% of the national population but is responsible for 23% of the Uk's GDP

• It holds the Houses of Parliament

• It has many transport links including London City airport, Heathrow airport, Gatwick airport, the tube and the DLR

What are the consequences of urban growth in Mumbai?

• Poor air quality due to vehicle emissions and manufacturing and power generation = health issues

• Poor water quality due to lack of sanitation systems meaning sewage and waste builds up and pollutes rivers = health issues

• waste disposal problems means the amount of waste produced by the population is hard to control and get rid of as it is expensive

What are the consequences of urban growth in London?

• Less green space as more buildings are being built which decreases the regulation of climate change in the area and the impacts of extreme weather like floods and heatwaves (environmental)

• increase in population means house prices go up so there will be some areas of poverty, meaning that poorer people get unequal access to healthcare, education and housing (social)

• There will be more demand in transport, leading to increased emissions reducing the air quality, more congestion and noise pollution (economic)

What is suburbanisation?

the outward growth of urban development which may engulf surrounding villages and towns into a larger urban agglomeration

What are the causes of suburbanisation?

• house prices are cheaper and bigger in the suburbs

• Acces to retail parks and leisure facilities

• Improved transport

• More green space

• generally safer neighbourhoods ~ better community spirit and cheaper house insurance

What are the positive effects of suburbanisation?

• increased demand for recreational and retail facilities, retail parks and DIY centres = more jobs created

• decreases need for high rises high density housing which is ugly and poor quality so more lower density housing is built

What are the negative effects of suburbanisation?

• increase in air pollution = more traffic congestion = climate change

• Land prices increase

• locals struggle with increased house prices and school places as the people moving from the inner city take up the spaces

• decreased employment in inner city = increased poverty and derelict buildings

Suburbanisation in London:

• 7000 hectares forest felled and 1000 hectares of wetland drained for urban sprawl = less trees so increased flooding due to less interception

Suburbanisation in Mumbai:

• reclaimed areas house the wealthier middle and upper classes but poorer people building slums and shanty towns in suburbs

• increasing industrialisation of suburbs increases movement of people In and out of the city = more congestion = climate change

what is counter urbanisation?

the movement back of people from urban to rural areas

What are the causes of counter urbanisation?

PUSH: - bad air quality = health issues

• expensive housing

• Traffic congestion

• Noise pollution

• More crime

PULL: - better air quality

• cheaper and bigger housing

• Better QOL due to more space and less noise

• improved online services = less need to travel to city

What are the impacts of counter urbanisation?

POSITIVE: - some shops see increase in business and some people have more disposable income

• older housing and buildings are restored and farmers able to sell land for money

• local services e.g schools are able to stay open

NEGATIVE: - newer developments may affect local character of the area (e.g the thatched roofs and brick)

• more services online = local shops and services may close

• house prices increase = older and younger people may have to move out the area

What is the case study of counter urbanisation?

St Ives in Cambridgeshire

What are the impacts of this case study?

• A14 traffic congestion = increased CO2 = climate change

• average house price has more than doubled = commuters can afford this due to their London wages but locals can't

• new housing estates built on flood plains South of the River Great Ouse = flooding damage and flood defences built which are expensive

What are the management strategies of this case study?

• £116 million spent on busways = reduced congestion

• future developments controlled so they fit into the area by building smaller houses and making certain % of houses for locals only

• Expanding primary schools

What is urban resurgence?

refers to the regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline

Why does urban resurgence occur?

• gentrification

• Property led generation schemes

• Sustainable communities

What is gentrification?

The change in the neighbourhood composition (low income people are displaced by affluent people

involved the rehabilitation of old houses and streets

What's our gentrification case study?

Notting Hill, London

How was Notting Hill gentrified?

Portland Road was mainly affected

• used to be one of the worst slums in London

Developers built:

• Multi million pound houses

• many expensive leisure facilities like a beauty spa, wine bar and gallery selling expensive artworks

Why was Notting Hill gentrified?

Due to the abolition of rent control in 1957 new middle class emerged who lived in the suburbs but moved here

What is deindustrialisation?

loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector which occurred in the UK in the second half of the 20th century

What are the causes of deindustrialisation

• reduced need for traditional products as new technologies are developed

• Competition from abroad

• mechanization - producing food more cheaply with machinery

What are the impacts of deindustrialisation?

• high unemployment = decrease in disposable incomes

• Derelict land and buildings

• Higher deprivation levels

• Higher levels of crime, alchohol and drug abuse

• Reduction in noise

What is a world city?

cities that's are generally considered to play an important role in the global economic system

What are the attributes of a world city?

• large population

• Ethnic diversity

• Centre of research and development

• Strong presence of TNC HQs

• government ambitions at national and local levels

• prestigious universities and research institutes

What are the classifications of world cities?

1. Alpha ++ cities

2. Alpha + cities

3. Alpha and alpha - cities

4. Beta level cities

5. Gamma level cities

What are urban policies?

Strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems.

What is the urban development corporation?

• set up to regenerate inner city areas

• made up of people from the local business community

• they were encouraged to spend money on buying land, building infrastructure and marketing to attract private investment

What was successful and unsuccessful in UDC?

• attracted new businesses to run down areas

• Improved environment

• Created jobs and investment money

• did not tackle social problems (locals did not have much involvement in the process)

• locals tended not to benefit from new jobs and housing

What was an example of UDC?

London Docklands Development

What is city challenge?

• a scheme where cities compete with each other for regeneration grants from the government

• Local authority let scheme

• forms partnerships between private sector, local communities and local authority

• focused on tackling social, economic and environmental problems

What is urban morphology?

The spatial structure and organisation of an urban area

What are the physical and human factors of urban morphology?

Physical: - probe to flooding (rivers)

• relief

Human : - density/ demand

• price of land

What is the Peak Land Value Intersection?

the point with the highest land value

What is the bid-rent theory?

Taking a transect from CBD to suburbs, land value falls as different land uses are less reliant on accessibility and unable to pay higher prices

What are examples of functions in the CBD?

• developing nightlife such as clubbing in Manchester -> attracts young professionals and spend their disposable income -> increase in hospitality jobs attracting students (e.g students in Leeds tend to stay after studying

• establishing themed areas such as the cultural quarters in Sheffield (e.g little Italy and china town) -> increase in tourism and money spent in economy -> multiplier effect -> makes area more unique and attractive to businesses

• developing flagship attractions (e.g Leeds) -> attracts other high end stores to open -> increases desirability of the area

What are convenience and comparison goods?

Convenience goods = local goods which are easy to find and are usually everyday purchases

Comparison goods = higher value goods which are usually one off purchases

What are the positives of convenience goods?

Allowed the development of local (corner) shops to service the needs of people to walk to get low cost goods

-> these shops were once found in residential areas within the suburban shopping parade

Why do larger CBD stores agglomerate together?

• for shoppers to easily compare goods

• they would compete with each other to seek the more expensive comparison goods

How has retail changed in the Uk?

1970s : - supermarkets and superstores built in residential areas

- sold food and non food which turned into hypermarkets

1980s : - non food retail parks expanded

1990s : - huge out of town shopping areas built on periphery of urban areas

2000s : - e comments and e tailors are growing

- traditional farmers markets selling local fresh produce

What are some services that CBDs now provide?

• hotels in the centre to entice tourists (e.g Hilton Hotel by Leeds train station)

• developing residential areas (e.g Leeds Dock)

• leisure facilities such as gyms and restaurants (e.g Leeds Dock and Victoria Quarter)

What are the urban characteristics in LA?

Land use patterns : - clean , orderly and organised residential communities

- largely white and middle class moved here to escape problems of industrial cities

Economic inequality : - businesses and services moved to cheaper and larger sites in the suburbs

- downtown LA dominated by HQs of TNCs that offer few jobs for low skilled people

Cultural diversity : - 'China Town' and 'Little Italy' provide character and uniqueness, enticing tourists

- Mexican hispanics are largest of many ethnic groups in LA

- one of the most crowded cities in the world

What are the urban characteristics in Mumbai?

Land use patterns : - around 1/2 the city's population live on the streets/ shanty towns

- one of the most crowded cities in the world

Economic inequality : - huge numbers live in poverty and the city's growth is largely unsustainable

- lots of foreign investment and wealth but low taxes and large informal economy mean there isn't enough funds for investment in urban infrastructure

Cultural diversity : - several languages are spoken e.g Marathi , English and Bambaiya Hindi

- many faiths are practiced including Buddhism

What is a postmodern western city?

An urban form associated with changes in urban structure, architectural design and planning which reflects the changes social and economic conditions of the late 20th century in some western cities

What are the three main characteristics of a postmodern western city?

• gentrified areas

• Fortress developments

• Edge cities

What are the positives and negatives of gentrification?

Positives: - rise in general levels of prosperity, increasing number and range of services and businesses

- increased tax revenue for local authority

- improved physical environment

Negatives: - low income groups get priced out of the housing market

- tension between new and old residents

- losses to lower order local services

What are fortress landscapes?

Landscapes designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusio

What do fortress landscapes promote?

• promotes urban centres

• ensures people visiting the area they are protected and the incorrect people are discouraged from coming to the area by cctv, speed bumps and street lights

What are edge cities?

Settlements on the edge of large urban areas predominantly caused by urban sprawl

How is Los Angeles an example of an edge city?

• the core city is 30km wide with a population of 4 million

• the metropolitan area has nearly a population of 18 million and is 100km wide

• There are more than 20 edge cities within this area

What are some examples of London’s inequality?

• London contains the highest proportion of people in the poorest 10th nationally

• London has the most unequal pay distribution of any part of the Uk

• The poorest 10th hold more debt than financial assets so have negative financial wealth amounting to -1.3 billion

What is economic inequality?

Wealth gaps within an urban area

E.g Antilla (the most expensive home in Mumbai) towering over one of the largest slums in the city

What are the domains of the Index of Multiple Deprivation?

• income

• Healthcare

• Education

• Employment

• Crime

How can you measure Quality of Life in an area?

Social: incidence of crime , access and standards to health facilities , housing quality

Economic : level of income , access to employment , percentage of state benefits

Environmental: graffiti , incidence of litter , level of pollution

What are the causes of social segregation?

Housing: affordable housing does not bring large profit so more expensive housing will be built

Changing environments: neighborhoods change over time so as poor areas get gentrified it causes poorer residents to move out

Ethic dimension: migrants given poorly payed jobs and can only afford cheap housing in poor areas

What are the effects of inequality?

• can be disparity between water supplies

• Poor live in over crowded areas with informal accommodation without basic infrastructure and services

• Poor get stuck in cycle of poverty with poor health and higher unemployment

What are the economic and social differences between Chelsea in West London and Tower Hamlets in East London?

Economic: Chelsea ~ disposable income , well payed jobs (regular 6 figure income)

Tower Hamlets ~ jobs below minimum wage , majority of wage spent on rent and bills

Social: Chelsea ~ large homes , fine dining and leisure time

Tower Hamlets ~ lack of leisure time , overcrowded high rise flats

How can poverty be tackled?

• enforced living wage ~ stimulates spending in local economy and ensures a liveable wage for all

• Access to affordable housing

• Supporting low skilled workers

What are the reasons for ethnic segregation in cities?

Self segregation: migrants seek support and security of living near friends and relatives within an ethnic minority community

• maintenance of culture and language and traditions

External factors: migrants are a source of cheap labor, forcing them into cheap housing areas

• ethnic minorities been discriminated against in access to local authority housing and less successful in securing mortgage loans

Why is there greater cultural diversity in cities?

• Cities tend to offer greater range of employment opportunities

• Established cultural diversity means there are specialist ethnic shops and religious centres located there

• Urban populations tend to be more tolerant of immigrants

How can harmony in cities be ensured?

• areas of mutual interest found and community engagement is conducted in intercultural spaces e.g schools, libraries, sport clubs

• Legislation of antiracism, employment nights and opportunities in Uk to combat discrimination

What is social segregation?

when different groups of people are split up in different parts of an area e.g economic classes

what is economic equality?

the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between different groups in society

What is an example of economic inequaliy and social segregation in Mumbai?

tall high rise buildings are built around Dharavi, showing the vast difference between the infrastructure and inequality of the poor and rich

How is cultural diverssity shown in London?

• 300 dialects aand languages are spoken

• white population is falling and black and other ethnicities are growing

• there is a rich ethnic and cultural diversity

What are microclimates?

The small scale variations in climate which occurs in an urban area

What are the different aspects of climate?

• temperature

• Precipitation

• Air quality

• Winds

What is the urban heat island?

When am Urban areas climate increases in temperature e.g in London it increased by 9 degrees

What causes the urban heat island?

• Heat stored in buildings during the day and released at night

• Heat from industry, vehicles, buildings and people

• Multi storey buildings and ones with large windows reflect lots of heat downwards

What is an example of a cause of urban heat island in London?

The walkie talkie building melted wing mirrors off cars due to the concave shape refracting light onto the road and pavement

How was this managed?

By adding brise Soleil (a sunshade) to prevent reflection

Why is the urban heat island a problem?

• conditions become uncomfortable

• Hot and still anticyclonic weather conditions produce higher pollution levels

• Climate change

How can you reduce the urban heat island effect?

• paint the roofs white to reflect heat from the sun → decreases amount of energy used for air conditioning (however some roofs can’t be painted)

• Planting trees to cool the air and provide shade → reduces direct heat and carbon emissions (however it is expensive and takes long time to grow)

Why might rainfall be higher is urban areas than rural areas?

• pollutants act as hygroscopic (water attracting) nuclei and assist in raindrop formation

• Large amounts of water vapour produced from industrial sources and power stations

Why might thunderstorm chance be increased in urban areas?

• condensation causes latent heat to be released and raindrops are split causing electrical charge to build up in the cloud

Why might fog occur more in cities?

• the particles in the city air act as condensation nuclei, encouraging fog formation

Why are average wind speeds lower in cities?

• buildings can exert a powerful friction drag on the air moving around them, causing changes in wind speed and direction

How is the Burj Khalifa equipped to cope with the wind?

• has a narrow top and softened edges to deflect wind

• Built at an angle relative to the prevailing wind

What lead to the Clean Air Act to be put in place?

Due to the ‘Great Smog’ that happened in London and killed 12,000 in 4 days

What is the clean air act?

An act that aims to control and reduce air pollution in London

What are the impacts of air pollution?

• heart problems, headaches and tiredness from carbon monoxide

• Enhanced greenhouse effect due to increased levels of CO2

What is an example of a reduction policy for air pollution?

• London’s Air Quality Management Area in 2015 where they had fines for engine idling, zero emission busses and taxis

How have vehicles been controlled in inner urban areas?

• many British towns have pedestrianised their CBDs

• London introduced congestion charge and more emission zone

• Mexico City bans all vehicles from driving in the city one weekday a week