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social cognition
how we make sense of our social world by interpreting, analysing, remembering and using information to make judgement about others in different social situations
the halo effect
the tendency of one particular trait or our overall positive impression to influence our judgement of their other traits
salience detection
any characteristic that is distinctive, prominent or noticeable in its context and attracts attention
social categorisation
process of classifying people into different groups on the basis of common characteristics
ingroup
a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging
outgroup
any group that an individual does not identify with or belong to
attribution
an evaluation made about the causes of behaviour
internal attribution
tendency to explain someone's behavior by attributing it to their inherent qualities, such as personality traits, abilities, or effort, rather than situational factors
external attribution
tendency to explain someone's behavior or an event by attributing it to external factors or situational influences, rather than to their personality or internal characteristics
fundamental attribution error
tendency to explain other people’s behaviour in terms of internal factors while ignoring possible external factors
actor observer bias
tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external factors yet attribute others to internal factors
self serving bias
take credit for our successes and deny responsibility for failure which is blamed on external factors
process of attributions
observation of an outward act of behaviour
conscious determination of the behaviour
attribute what causes the behaviour
attitudes
an evaluation of something, such as a person, object, event or idea
tri component model
affective → our emotions and intuitive feelings towards something
behavioural → outward and observable actions that reflect our point of view about something
cognitive → thoughts and beliefs towards something
limitations of tri component model
sometimes a person’s behaviour does not or cannot reflect their attitudes
cognitive dissonance
occurances when our thoughts, feelings and behaviour do not align with one another
how can cognitive dissonance be avoided
changing thoughts to align with behaviour
changing behaviour to align with thoughts
the use of cognitive bias
cognitive bias
unconscious, systematic tendencies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality
confirmation bias
search for accept information that supports prior beliefs and ignore contradictory information
false consensus bias
overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas as you
stereotypes
widely held belief and generalisation about a group, such as people, animals or objects
heuristics
information processing strategies or ‘mental shortcuts’ that enable individuals to form judgements, make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently
anchoring
forming judgements based on the first information received about an idea or concept
availability
make judgement based on information that is easily accessible (past experience, first thing to come to mind)
representative
make a categorical judgement about an idea, event or person based on their similarity to other items in that category
affect
uses emotions in a decision or judgement
prejudice
a negative preconception held against people within a certain group or social category
how to reduce prejudice
intergroup contact
contact hypothesis
mutual interdependence
superordinate goals
cognitive interventions
intergroup contact
increasing the contact between two groups which are prejudiced against each other
contact hypothesis
certain types of contact between members of different groups can reduce the prejudice between them
mutual interdependence
two groups which are prejudiced against one another are put in a contact situation where they must rely on each other
superordinate goals
a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides other existing goals the individual groups may have
cognitive interventions
changing the way someone thinks about prejudice
discrimination
unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category
direct discrimination
when someone is treated unfairly because of their membership to a group
being paid less because you are female
indirect discrimination
when a practice or rule applies to all people but disadvantages a certain group
making everyone take off head scarves/hats including those who wear hijabs
effect of discrimination
increases changes of physical, psychological and social disadvantage
stigma
the feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others
social stigma
negative stereotypes used to define people and prevent them from being seen as individuals
self stigma
where a person internalises negative stereotypes
social group
two or more people who interact and influence each other and share a common objective
obedience
change in behavior that occurs in response to a direct order from an authority figure
factors impacting obedience
legitimacy of authority figures
proximity
group pressure
status
the importance of an individual’s position in a group as perceived by other members of this group
power
an individual’s ability to control or influence another person even when they try to resist
reward power
controls positive rewards for a specific behaviour
coercive power
controls punishments
legitimate power
right to require and demand obedience of others
referent power
power through the respect of others
expert power
has superior abilities
informational power
access to informational resources that are not available elsewhere