holder exam 1

What is taxonomy?

The science of describing, naming, and classifying living and extinct organisms and viruses; based on physical features.

What is systematics?

The study of biological diversity and the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both extinct and modern; based on molecular features.

What are taxonomic groups based on?

Hypotheses regarding evolutionary relationships derived from systematics.

What is a taxon?

A group of organisms classified based on similarities, such as structure or origin; each group at any level in the hierarchical system is a taxon.

What is the taxonomic hierarchy?

A hierarchical system involving successive levels of classification.

What is the highest level of taxonomic groups?

Domain.

What are the three domains?

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

What are the four kingdoms of Eukarya listed in the notes?

Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of what type of cells?

Non-nucleated prokaryotic cells.

What type of cells make up Domain Eukarya?

Nucleated eukaryotic cells.

What does "prokaryotic" mean?

“Before nucleus.”

What are the defining cellular features of prokaryotic cells?

They lack a nucleus and membrane-bounded organelles; they have an outside membrane.

What does "eukaryotic" mean?

“True nucleus.”

What are the defining cellular features of eukaryotic cells?

They have a well-defined nucleus, membrane-bounded organelles, an internal membrane system (compartments), and an outside membrane.

According to the notes, what is an advantage of eukaryotic cells?

They are more efficient at metabolism.

What is binomial nomenclature?

“2-worded naming”: the genus name plus the specific epithet.

Why is binomial nomenclature useful?

It makes communication easier.

What can the specific epithet usually describe?

The species or its location.

According to the notes, why is binomial nomenclature called "artificial"?

It is only used by humans.

What is the genus in binomial nomenclature?

The first part; it is always capitalized and is a noun.

What is the specific epithet in binomial nomenclature?

The second part; it is never capitalized and is a descriptive adjective.

Who proposed binomial nomenclature in 1753?

Carols Linnaeus.

What is phylogeny?

The evolutionary history of a species or group of species.

What do biologists use to propose phylogeny?

Tools of systematics.

What is a phylogenetic tree?

A diagram that describes phylogeny and presents a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among various species.

What types of data are usually used to construct phylogenetic trees?

Morphological or genetic data.

Why are phylogenetic trees considered hypotheses?

They are based on available information and are only as good as the information available.

What does the bottom of a phylogenetic tree represent?

A common ancestor.

What happens to the species of a phylogenetic tree farther up the tree, according to the notes?

They become more complex.

Where are simpler groups located on a phylogenetic tree?

Closer to the bottom.

What does greater separation between branches indicate, according to the notes?

The species are less related.

What is a monophyletic group or clade?

A group consisting of the most recent common ancestor and all of its descendants.

What is a paraphyletic group?

A group consisting of some, but not all, of its descendants.

What did early systematic studies focus on?

Morphological features of extinct and modern species.

What did many early classification methods use besides morphology?

Animal embryonic development.

How can morphology link extinct animals to living animals?

Through bones, teeth, and fossils.

What is molecular systematics?

Analysis of genetic data such as DNA, RNA, and amino acid sequences to identify and study genetic similarities and propose phylogenetic trees.

What does greater similarity in DNA or amino acid sequences generally indicate?

The species are more closely related than species with more different sequences.

Is there some genetic similarity between all species?

Yes; the notes state there is some percent of similarity between all species.

What improves molecular/morphological classification according to the notes?

Using more genetic information, amino acids, and morphological traits.

What do the notes say makes prokaryotes hard to classify?

They lack sexual reproduction.

What does Proteobacteria mean?

“True bacteria.”

What are Cyanobacteria?

“Blue green bacteria” that can absorb light.

How old are the prokaryote fossils listed in the notes?

About 3.5 billion years.

Which two domains are prokaryotic?

Bacteria and Archaea.

What cellular features are listed for prokaryotes?

Specialized membranes and a cell wall.

What does Domain Bacteria contain?

Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria.

What is characteristic of Domain Archaea in the notes?

They are described as “almost” bacteria and are associated with harsh/extreme environments.

Where do most organisms in Domain Archaea live?

Harsh/extreme environments.

What is Kingdom Protista?

A kingdom containing the earliest eukaryotes in the fossil record; most are microscopic and found in most environments.

Why is Protista described as a "catch-all" kingdom/category?

Eukaryotes that do not fit into the other kingdoms are placed into Protista.

What is notable about the genetic relationships within Protista?

It contains many separate groups that are not closely related genetically.

What are algae in Kingdom Protista?

Mostly “plant-like” organisms.

How many groups of algae are listed?

10 groups.

What is the nutritional mode of most algae?

Autotrophic/self-feeding; most are photosynthetic, though a few ingest food.

What size range can algae have?

Unicellular to large multicellular.

What do algae have according to the notes?

A cell wall.

What are protozoans?

“Animal-like” organisms in Kingdom Protista.

What does protozoan mean?

“Before Animal.”

What is the usual nutritional mode of protozoans?

Most are heterotrophic (“ingest feeding”).

Are many protozoans unicellular?

Yes.

What are two examples of protozoans?

Amoeba and Paramecium.

What are fungal-like protists?

Protists that are mostly saprotrophic (“absorb feeding”) and mostly multicellular.

What is an example of a fungal-like protist?

Slime molds.

What is the biggest group of fungal-like protists listed?

Slime molds.

What is the ecological role of Kingdom Fungi?

They break down dead animals, fecal matter, or leaves and act as nature’s “recyclers.”

What is the conspicuous portion of a fungus?

The mushroom, yeast, mold, etc.

What is the nutritional mode of fungi?

Saprotrophic; some are heterotrophic.

What is the body of a fungus?

A mycelium, a compacted mass of tubular filaments called hyphae.

What is a fruiting body?

The site of spore production on the outside.

What is a mycelium?

The vegetative part of fungi, consisting of a network of hyphae that absorbs nutrients from the environment.

What are the four kingdoms of Domain Eukarya?

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

What is Kingdom Plantae?

A kingdom with more than 330,000 species; eukaryotic and multicellular; mostly autotrophic.

How do plants obtain energy?

They capture sunlight energy by photosynthesis.

What food-storage compound do all plants store?

Starch.

What is the plant cell wall made of?

Cellulose.

What is cellulose described as in the notes?

The most abundant carbohydrate.

What photosynthetic pigments do plants have?

Chlorophylls.

How old are the plant fossils listed?

About 400 million years before present.

What is Kingdom Plantae referred to as?

Land plants; “non-algae.”

How many phyla/divisions are listed for Kingdom Plantae?

10.

What innovation did plants need to acquire water while living on land?

Roots.

What is probably the ancestral stock of Kingdom Plantae?

Green algae.

What are bryophytes?

Small plants including liverworts, hornworts, and mosses.

Which three phyla are included among bryophytes?

Hepatophyta (liverworts), Anthocerophyta (hornworts), and Bryophyta (mosses).

How many liverwort species are listed?

6,500.

How many hornwort species are listed?

100.

How many moss species are listed?

12,000.

What are bryophytes often called collectively?

“Mosses and their allies.”

How do bryophytes reproduce?

By spores; they have no seeds.

Are bryophytes vascular?

No; they lack conducting tissues (xylem and phloem).

What do bryophytes require for reproduction?

External water on the surface of the plant.

Why do bryophytes require external water for reproduction?

Their flagellated sperm must swim to the egg location.

What are pteridophytes?

Ferns and their relatives; they include lycophytes and ferns/allies.

Which two phyla are listed as pteridophytes?

Lycopodiophyta (lycophytes) and Pteridophyte (ferns and allies).

How many lycophyte species are listed?

1,000.

How many fern/allied species are listed?

12,500.

What are pteridophytes often called collectively?

“Ferns and their relatives.”

How do pteridophytes reproduce?

By spores; they have no seeds.

Are pteridophytes vascular?

Yes; they contain xylem and phloem.