Alexander major events

Birth of Alexander the Great

356 BCE- Alexander was born in Pella, the son of Philip II and Olympias. Plutarch (Alexander 3) records that on the night of his birth, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus burned down, interpreted by the seer Hegesias as a sign that the force that would destroy Asia had entered the world. Olympias reportedly dreamed of a thunderbolt striking her womb, and Philip dreamed of sealing her womb with a lion — both dreams interpreted as foreshadowing Alexander's greatness.

Alexander's childhood and education

From a young age, Alexander displayed a sharp intellect and fierce ambition. He was tutored by Aristotle at Mieza, where, as Plutarch (Alex. 7) notes, he "imbibed a desire and a passion for learning," developing interests in medicine, philosophy, and literature. He famously tamed Bucephalus, a horse no one else could control, earning Philip's praise: "My boy, you must seek a kingdom equal to yourself, Macedonia is too small for you" (Plutarch Alex. 6).

Alexander's first military experience

(c. 340 BCE): When Philip campaigned against Byzantium, Alexander, at just sixteen, was left as regent and quickly put down a rebellion by the Maedi, founding the city of Alexandropolis. This event marks his first taste of command and foreshadows his military prowess (Justin 11.5).

Battle of Chaeronea

338 BCE: At Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander decisively defeated Athens and Thebes. Alexander, commanding the Companion cavalry, struck the Sacred Band of Thebes — according to Diodorus (16.86), breaking their ranks and turning the battle. Arrian (1.9) praises his "valor and judgment," showing Alexander was already vital to Macedonian success.

Pixodarus marriage incident

337 BCE: Philip negotiated a marriage alliance between his half-witted son Arrhidaeus and Pixodarus' daughter, but Alexander, fearing for his succession, tried to arrange the marriage himself. This enraged Philip, who expelled Alexander's companions. Plutarch (Alex. 10) notes Philip told Alexander: "Do you not think that you are unworthy of a kingdom when you quarrel over marriage alliances?"

Assassination of Philip

336 BCE: Philip was assassinated at Aegae by Pausanias, allegedly over a personal grievance but possibly with Olympias' involvement (Diodorus 17.2-3). Alexander swiftly took the throne, eliminating rivals such as Amyntas and Attalus' faction to secure his rule, demonstrating his ruthlessness.

Suppression of Greek rebellions

335 BCE: While consolidating power, Alexander marched south and obliterated Thebes after its revolt, killing 6,000 and enslaving survivors, though sparing temples and Pindar's house (Arrian 1.10). Diodorus (17.14) describes the Thebans' "utter destruction," which cowed other Greek cities into submission.

Crossing the Hellespont

334 BCE: Persian campaign beginsAlexander crossed the Hellespont with 35,000 troops, stopping at Troy to sacrifice at Achilles' tomb and exchange his armor — an act Plutarch (Alex. 15) says reflected his aspiration to emulate Achilles, his hero.

Battle of Granicus

334 BCE: At Granicus River, Alexander led a direct cavalry charge across the river, narrowly escaping death when Cleitus the Black saved him from a Persian axe blow (Arrian 1.15). The victory opened Asia Minor to Macedonian control.

Coastal campaigns — Sardis, Miletus, Halicarnassus

334-333 BCE: Sardis surrendered without resistance. at Miletus and Halicarnassus, Alexander used siege engines and naval power to defeat determined Persian defenders (Arrian 1.18-23). These victories secured the coast and naval bases.

Gordium and the Gordian Knot

333 BCE: At Gordium, Alexander faced the famous prophecy that whoever untied the Gordian Knot would rule Asia. Rather than struggling, he sliced it with his sword. Arrian (2.3) calls this "a sign of his boldness," while Plutarch (Alex. 18) suggests it reinforced his divine mission.

Cilician Gates and Alexander's illness

333 BCE: After crossing the narrow Cilician Gates, Alexander fell seriously ill at Tarsus, possibly from bathing in the cold Cydnus River. His physician, Philip of Acarnania, cured him despite accusations of poisoning (Arrian 2.4-5). Plutarch (Alex. 19) says Alexander drank the medicine after handing Philip an accusing letter, showing trust.

Battle of Issus

333 BCE: Facing Darius III at Issus, Alexander's phalanx pinned the Persian center while his cavalry broke through to Darius, who fled. Arrian (2.11) describes the capture of Darius' family, whom Alexander treated with "royal dignity," even comforting the queen over rumors of Darius' death (Plutarch Alex. 21).

Siege of Tyre

332 BCE: One of Alexander's most famous sieges, Tyre resisted for seven months until Alexander built a causeway to the island city. Arrian (2.24) records heavy casualties and the enslavement of Tyrians, demonstrating Alexander's capacity for both engineering genius and ruthless punishment.

Siege of Gaza

332 BCE: Gaza resisted fiercely, after capturing it, Alexander dragged the defeated commander Batis behind a chariot, echoing Achilles' treatment of Hector (Arrian 2.27), reinforcing his mythic self-image.

Egypt, Memphis, and the Oracle of Ammon

332 BCE: Alexander was welcomed as a liberator in Egypt, in Memphis, he was crowned Pharaoh. At Siwah, the Oracle of Ammon allegedly greeted him as "son of Zeus" (Arrian 3.4 Plutarch Alex. 27), bolstering his divine claims

Battle of Gaugamela

331 BCE: Despite being outnumbered, Alexander defeated Darius by targeting the center and forcing Darius to flee. Arrian (3.15) emphasizes the "decisive moment" when Alexander's charge broke Persian cohesion.

Death of Darius III

330 BCE: As Alexander pursued Darius into Bactria, Darius was betrayed and killed by Bessus. Alexander honored his enemy with a royal burial (Arrian 3.22), portraying himself as rightful king of Asia.

Greek revolts, Battle of Megalopolis

330-329 BCE: While Alexander campaigned east, Agis III of Sparta led a revolt in Greece. Antipater crushed the rebellion at Megalopolis (Diodorus 17.63), ensuring stability at home.

Babylon, Susa, Persepolis

330-329 BCE: Alexander seized the Persian capitals, looting their vast treasures. At Persepolis, he famously burned the palace, possibly as revenge for Xerxes' sack of Athens, though Plutarch (Alex. 38) suggests it was also the result of drunken revelry.

Pursuit of Bessus, Sogdiana, Spitamenes

329-328 BCE: Alexander chased Bessus into Bactria, captured and executed him, then faced Spitamenes' guerrilla revolt in Sogdiana, demonstrating flexibility in mountain warfare (Arrian 4.3-17).

Marriage to Roxane

327 BCE: To secure Sogdian loyalty, Alexander married Roxane, daughter of Oxyartes. Arrian (4.19) says the marriage was both political and genuine, given Alexander's affection.

Rock of Chorienes and Rock of Aornos

327 BCE: Alexander scaled the seemingly impregnable Rock of Aornos, overcoming logistical and engineering challenges (Arrian 4.30-5.3), cementing his reputation as invincible.

Oracle of Delphi

Before departing for Asia, Alexander sought confirmation of his destiny at Delphi. When the oracle initially refused to prophesy, Alexander dragged the priestess to the shrine, and she cried out, "You are invincible, my son!" (Plutarch Alex. 14), which he took as his oracle.

Crossing the Indus River

Spring 326 BCE: Alexander crossed the Indus River into India and was welcomed by Taxiles (Ambhi) of Taxila, who offered alliance, elephants, and troops. This diplomatic success ensured Alexander had local support before confronting King Porus. Arrian (5.12-13) notes this alliance's strategic importance, securing Alexander's flank and supplies before the Hydaspes.

Battle of the Hydaspes

May or June 326 BCE: At the Hydaspes River, Alexander faced King Porus, whose elephants and massive army blocked his advance. Using deception, Alexander crossed upstream at night and flanked Porus. Despite Porus' brave resistance, Alexander's tactics prevailed. Arrian (5.14-19) and Plutarch (Alexander 60) describe how Alexander restored Porus as ruler.

Beas River Mutiny

326 BCE: Alexander's troops refused to march further into India due to exhaustion and fear. Alexander argued for glory and destiny, but Coenus urged caution, speaking for the army's fatigue. Alexander initially isolated himself but then agreed to turn back. His decision showed flexibility and preserved his army's loyalty. (Arrian 5.27-28)

Who was Nearchus and what did his fleet achieve while heading back from the Indus river?

• Nearchus: Admiral of Alexander’s fleet sailing from the Indus River along the Persian Gulf.

• Achievements:

  • Faced storms, hostile natives, and scarce water.

  • Proved a sea route between the Indus and Persian Gulf was possible.

  • Brought back valuable coastal intelligence.

• Significance: Major naval success that supported Alexander’s empire-wide communication and expansion plans.

What did Alexander find among his Persian officials on return?

• Problem: Many satraps (governors) had become corrupt and abused power in his absence.

• Response:

  • Alexander purged the administration.

  • Executed or replaced many officials (e.g., Cleander of Media).

• Reason: Reassert imperial authority and enforce justice to restore discipline.

Who was Baryaxes and what happened to him?

• Baryaxes: A Median noble who declared himself king, aiming to revive the Median monarchy.

• Arrested for rebelling against Alexander’s authority.

• Fate: Executed to set an example and prevent further uprisings.

Why did Alexander visit Cyrus’ tomb and what did he do?

• Visited Cyrus the Great’s tomb in Pasargadae.

• Found it looted by a local satrap.

• Alexander’s reaction:

  • Outraged and had the tomb restored and guarded.

  • Paid deep respect, using Cyrus as a model of Persian kingship.

• Purpose: To strengthen his image as legitimate Persian ruler.

Alexander’s reaction to burning Persepolis? (after return from trip)

• Regret: Realised it was a symbolic mistake after embracing Persian identity.

• Context: Burned in a drunken rage, possibly at Thaïs’ suggestion.

• Source: Plutarch mentions Alexander’s remorse as it clashed with his fusion policy.

• Significance: Contradicted his role as a Persian king and damaged diplomacy.

Who was Orxines and what led to his downfall?

Orxines: Persian noble who refused to honour Bagoas, Alexander’s Persian eunuch lover.

• Accused of:

  • Disrespect toward Bagoas.

  • Possibly plundering sacred tombs.

• Executed by Alexander.

• Significance: Shows Alexander’s increasing preference for Persian customs and loyalty over aristocratic pride.

What was the Harpalus Scandal?

Harpalus: Alexander’s childhood friend and imperial treasurer.

• Corruption:

  • Embezzled funds and lived lavishly during Alexander’s campaigns.

• Fled to Athens with the money.

• Sparked the “Harpalus Affair” in Athens (involving Demosthenes).

• Significance: Revealed breakdown in imperial control and administrative weaknesses during Alexander’s long absence.

Philip II

Alexander’s father and King of Macedon, he created the strong army and political foundation that Alexander inherited.

Olympias

Alexander’s mother, she was fiercely ambitious and claimed Alexander was the son of Zeus.

Aristotle

Renowned philosopher who educated Alexander in science

Cleopatra (Eurydice)

Philip II’s last wife, her marriage threatened Alexander’s claim to the throne.

Attalus

Uncle of Cleopatra, powerful general who opposed Alexander’s succession.

Parmenion

Senior general under Philip and Alexander, later executed by Alexander for disloyalty.

Philotas

Parmenion’s son, executed for alleged conspiracy against Alexander.

Antipater

Appointed regent of Macedonia while Alexander campaigned in Asia.

Nearchus

Admiral of Alexander’s fleet, successfully sailed from the Indus River to the Persian Gulf.

Coenus

General who argued successfully for the army to turn back at the Hyphasis River.

Cleitus the Black

General who saved Alexander’s life at Granicus, later killed by Alexander in a drunken quarrel.

Callisthenes

Historian (and Aristotle’s nephew) who opposed proskynesis, executed by Alexander.

Darius III

King of Persia and main enemy of Alexander, defeated at Issus and Gaugamela.

Bessus

Persian noble who betrayed and killed Darius III, executed by Alexander for treason.

Porus

Indian king defeated by Alexander at the Battle of Hydaspes, treated with respect afterward.

Spitamenes

Sogdian rebel leader who led resistance against Alexander in Central Asia.

Agis III of Sparta

Led a revolt against Macedonian rule during Alexander’s eastern campaign.

Baryaxes

Median noble who declared himself king, executed by Alexander for rebellion.

Bagoas

Persian eunuch and court favourite of Alexander, influential in court politics.

Roxana

Bactrian princess and Alexander’s first wife, later gave birth to his son.

Stateira II, Daughter of Darius III

married Alexander during the Susa weddings for political fusion.

Barsine

Daughter of Artabazus and possibly Alexander’s lover, mother of Heracles.

Heracles

Purported illegitimate son of Alexander and Barsine

Harpalus

Alexander’s treasurer who embezzled funds and fled to Athens, executed after Alexander’s death.

Orxines

Persian noble executed by Alexander for refusing to show respect to Bagoas and for tomb plundering.

Plutarch

Greek biographer whose Life of Alexander is a major source of Alexander’s character and actions.

Arrian

Greek historian whose Anabasis of Alexander is the most reliable ancient source on Alexander’s campaigns.

Philotas and Parmenio scandal

Philotas, son of senior general Parmenio, was accused in 330 BC of failing to report a conspiracy against Alexander. Under torture, he confessed and was executed. Although Parmenio was not involved, Alexander ordered his secret assassination to prevent possible revenge.
Arrian (Book III.26): “Philotas was put to death... and Alexander sent Polydamas to Media with instructions to kill Parmenio.”
Analysis: This marked a turning point where Alexander prioritised absolute control over personal loyalty, signalling to all generals that no one was safe, even those closest to him.

Cleitus the Black plot

Cleitus the Black,
In 328 BC, during a drunken banquet, Cleitus the Black criticised Alexander, praising Philip II and mocking Alexander’s adoption of Persian customs. Enraged, Alexander seized a spear and killed Cleitus on the spot. He immediately regretted his action and grieved deeply.
Plutarch, Alexander 50: “Then in a fury he leapt to his feet, snatched a spear from one of his guards and ran Cleitus through.”
Analysis: This incident highlighted the cultural clash between Macedonian frankness and the authoritarian court Alexander was building. It also revealed Alexander’s growing emotional instability and the erosion of camaraderie with his men.

Plot of the Pages

In 327 BC, a group of royal pages plotted to assassinate Alexander after one was punished harshly. The conspiracy was discovered, and the boys were tortured and stoned to death.
Arrian (Book IV.13): “They were tortured to reveal their accomplices... they were then stoned to death by the Macedonians.”
Analysis: This plot demonstrated the discontent and lack of loyalty even among the young Macedonian elite. It showed how fear had replaced respect in maintaining discipline and that Alexander’s court had grown increasingly tyrannical.

Callisthenes and the ‘Golden Loving Cup’,

Callisthenes, a historian and relative of Aristotle, opposed Alexander’s introduction of proskynesis, a Persian practice of bowing or prostration. At a banquet, he refused to perform the gesture and insulted the practice. Later, he was falsely accused of involvement in the Pages’ plot and died in captivity.
Plutarch, Alexander 54: “Callisthenes said, ‘I am not going to make obeisance to Alexander; I did not to Philip.’”
Analysis: This showed Alexander’s demand for divine-like reverence and how dissenting intellectuals were no longer safe. It marked a shift in court culture — from open dialogue to blind obedience.

Siege of Mallian City & Alexander Injured

Early 325 BC: Alexander stormed the Mallian city alone and was seriously wounded, nearly dying. This act rallied his troops and showed both his courage and human vulnerability.
Quote: “When they saw him covered with blood, they were struck with fear and fury... and in their rage slaughtered all who came in their way.” – Arrian, Anabasis 6.11

Crossing the Gedrosian Desert

Mid–late 325 BC: Alexander led his army through the deadly Gedrosian desert, possibly as punishment for disobedience or to rival Cyrus’s achievements. Thousands perished from thirst and heat.
Quote: “No enemy attacked them, but famine destroyed them more cruelly than the sword.” – Arrian, Anabasis 6.24

Return to Persia / Administrative Reforms

Early 324 BC: Alexander cracked down on corrupt satraps and enforced accountability among governors, aiming to restore order and unite Macedonian and Persian systems.
Quote: “Alexander removed from office those satraps and generals whom he found guilty of misconduct and extravagance.” – Arrian, Anabasis 7.4

Weddings at Susa

Spring 324 BC: Alexander arranged mass weddings between Macedonian officers and Persian noblewomen to symbolise the fusion of cultures. He himself married Statira and Parysatis.
Quote: “He married many of his companions to Persian women... hoping that a mixed race might bind the two nations.” – Plutarch, Life of Alexander 70

Exiles Decree

Mid 324 BC: Alexander ordered all Greek exiles (except those guilty of sacrilege) to be reinstated, intending to display his pan-Hellenic authority but causing unrest in Greek cities.
Quote: “He sent Nicanor to proclaim that all exiles were to return... This caused considerable alarm in many Greek states.” – Arrian, Anabasis 7.12

Mutiny at Opis

Late 324 BC: Macedonian troops revolted over Alexander’s growing use of Persians. Alexander dismissed them emotionally but reconciled after their pleas, restoring morale.
Quote: “He told them they could go home... and the old soldiers burst into tears and begged to be taken back.” – Arrian, Anabasis 7.11

Death of Hephaestion

Late 324 BC: Hephaestion died of illness in Ecbatana. Alexander mourned excessively—declaring public mourning, executing the doctor, and commissioning a huge funeral.
Quote: “He ordered the manes of Hephaestion to be honoured with sacrifices like those paid to a demigod.” – Plutarch, Life of Alexander 72

Theoroi of Babylon

Early 323 BC: Delegates (theoroi) from Greek cities came to offer divine honours, confirming Alexander’s semi-divine status as he prepared a campaign into Arabia and beyond.
Quote: “The Greeks sent embassies... giving him divine honours and asking for oracles.” – Plutarch, Life of Alexander 73

Death of Alexander

June 10 or 11, 323 BC: Alexander died in Babylon after a 10-day illness. Theories include fever, poison, or overwork. His final words allegedly left his empire to “the strongest.”
Quote: “A silence fell on the men... and they asked to whom he bequeathed the kingdom. He replied: ‘To the strongest.’” – Arrian, Anabasis 7.26