USII Final Exam Review

Harry S. Truman

President after FDR; initiated the Truman Doctrine & Marshall Plan to contain communism; approved atomic bomb use and led the U.S. into the Korean War.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Cold War-era president who believed in containment and brinkmanship; created the Eisenhower Doctrine and expanded nuclear weapons; warned of the 'military-industrial complex.'

Joseph McCarthy

Senator who led a fear-driven anti-communist crusade (McCarthyism), accusing many without evidence; created a culture of fear and blacklisting.

John F. Kennedy

President during the Bay of Pigs and Cuban Missile Crisis; promoted space race and civil rights; assassinated in 1963.

Lyndon B. Johnson

Passed major civil rights legislation (Civil Rights Act 1964, Voting Rights Act 1965); escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Richard Nixon

Promoted détente and visited China and the USSR; resigned after Watergate; also started Vietnamization to reduce U.S. troops.

General MacArthur

Led U.S. forces in Korea; fired by Truman for publicly criticizing limited war strategy.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Leader of the CRM, advocated nonviolence, wanted nonviolence but knew civil disobedience is needed at times; led March on Washington; his assassination led to riots and mourning nationwide.

Malcolm X

Civil rights activist who advocated Black empowerment and self-defense; symbol of more militant Black nationalism, later moderated views before assassination.

Gerald Ford

Became president after Nixon’s resignation; pardoned Nixon, which made him unpopular; continued détente policies.

Jimmy Carter

Focused on human rights in foreign policy; handled Iran Hostage Crisis poorly; brokered Camp David Accords (Egypt-Israel peace).

Ronald Reagan

Intensified Cold War (military buildup, SDI); gave famous “Tear down this wall” speech; his economic and military pressure contributed to Soviet collapse.

Emmett Till

Lynched in Mississippi; Open-casket funeral and media coverage sparked national outrage and fueled the CRM.

Ngo Diem

U.S.-backed South Vietnamese leader; corrupt and unpopular, especially with Buddhists; his assassination destabilized South Vietnam.

Ho Chi Minh

Communist leader of North Vietnam; led resistance against the French and then the U.S. in the Vietnam War; symbol of Vietnamese nationalism.

Mikhil Gorbachev

Soviet leader who introduced reforms (glasnost, perestroika) that unintentionally sped up the USSR’s collapse; signed arms treaties with U.S.

Containment

U.S. foreign policy to stop the spread of communism; shaped every Cold War action (e.g., Korea, Vietnam, NATO).

Satellite Nations

Eastern European countries under Soviet control (e.g., Poland, Hungary); used as a buffer zone by USSR; source of Western concern.

NATO

Military alliance formed in 1949 between U.S., Canada, and Western Europe to counter Soviet aggression; first peacetime alliance for the U.S.

Warsaw Pact

Soviet-led military alliance formed in 1955 in response to NATO; included Eastern Bloc nations, deepened Cold War divisions.

McCarthyism

Period of intense anti-communist suspicion led by Senator Joseph McCarthy; Many falsely accused, civil liberties violated; Weakened trust in government.

Blacklist

Hollywood figures and others accused of communist ties were banned from work; part of Red Scare hysteria and a form of censorship.

HUAC

House Un-American Activities Committee; Congressional committee that investigated suspected communists, especially in entertainment and government; Reinforced the Red Scare

Marshall Plan

U.S. aid program (1948) giving over $12 billion to rebuild Western Europe; strengthened economies and democratic governments, reducing communist influence

Truman Doctrine

U.S. pledge to support nations resisting communism, starting with aid to Greece and Turkey; marked the start of U.S. Cold War interventionism.

Berlin Blockade

Soviet attempt to force Allies out of West Berlin by cutting off access; first major Cold War crisis.

Berlin Airlift

Allied response to blockade: flew in food and supplies for nearly a year; huge success, showed U.S. commitment to containment.

Berlin Wall

Physical wall separating East and West Berlin; symbol of Cold War division and communist repression.

Korean War

North Korea (communist) invaded South Korea (U.S.-backed); U.S. and UN forces fought to restore border; China entered war to support North; ended in stalemate at 38th parallel. Showed U.S. willingness to fight communism militarily.

Eisenhower Doctrine

Policy promising U.S. aid to any Middle Eastern country resisting communism; extended containment to new region.

Bay of Pigs

Failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro exiles; Embarrassed JFK & strengthened Castro’s hold and pushed Cuba toward USSR.

Cuban Missile Crisis

USSR placed missiles in Cuba; U.S. demanded removal, world came close to nuclear war; Resolved with missile withdrawal and U.S. promise not to invade Cuba; Marked turning point toward arms control.

Limited Test Ban Treaty

U.S., USSR, and UK agreed to stop nuclear testing in the atmosphere, space, and underwater. First step in nuclear arms control.

Hungarian Revolt of 1956

Anti-Soviet uprising crushed by USSR. U.S. didn’t intervene—revealed limits of containment in Soviet sphere.

Role of the CIA in the Cold War

Conducted covert operations to weaken communism abroad (e.g., coups in Iran and Guatemala, surveillance in USSR). Key tool in non-military containment.

SCLC

Southern Christian Leadership Conference; Led by Dr. King; promoted nonviolent protest to end segregation and gain civil rights

De Jure Segregation

Racial separation enforced by law

De Facto Segregation

Racial separation enforced by practice/custom

Montgomery Bus Boycott

1955-1956; Sparked by Rosa Parks’ arrest; led by Dr. King; ended bus segregation and launched King’s leadership

The Black Panthers

Militant Black rights group founded in 1966; focused on self-defense, community programs, and challenging police brutality.

Freedom Summer

Effort to register Black voters in Mississippi; met with violence, including murders of civil rights workers.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Banned literacy tests and allowed federal oversight of elections; major victory for civil rights

Selma Campaign

Marches for voting rights; violent attacks on marchers (Bloody Sunday) helped lead to the Voting Rights Act.

Children’s March/Birmingham protest

1963; Youth protested segregation; police brutality shocked the nation and increased support for civil rights.

March on Washington

Massive rally where Dr. King gave 'I Have a Dream' speech; helped build support for civil rights legislation.

Roe v Wade

Supreme Court case that legalized abortion; landmark for women’s rights.

Brown v Board of Education

Declared school segregation unconstitutional; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.

United Farm Workers and the grape boycott

Led by César Chávez; used economic boycotts to demand better wages and conditions for farmworkers.

Effects of the Civil Rights Movement

Led to laws banning segregation and protecting voting rights; inspired other groups

Stonewall Riot

1969; Uprising against police harassment of LGBTQ+ people in NYC; sparked modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.

Capitol Crawl

Disabled activists crawled up Capitol steps to demand ADA passage; helped lead to Americans with Disabilities Act

SNCC

Youth-led civil rights group; organized sit-ins, Freedom Rides, voter registration

Little Rock Nine

1957 Arkansas; First Black students to integrate Little Rock’s Central High; required federal troops to protect them.

Sit-ins

Nonviolent protests at segregated lunch counters; spread across the South and led to desegregation of public places.

Urban riots

Violent uprisings in cities like Detroit and Watts due to racial tension, poverty, and police brutality.

Feminine Mystique

Book by Betty Friedan that challenged traditional roles of women; helped launch second-wave feminism.

Assassination of Dr. King

Shocked the nation and led to nationwide riots; marked the end of the movement’s nonviolent era.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned segregation in public places

Vietcong

Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam who supported the North; used ambushes and traps, blending with civilians

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

1964; Gave President Johnson authority to use military force in Vietnam without declaring war; escalated U.S. involvement

1968 Democratic National Convention

Violent anti-war protests erupted outside; showed national division over the war and hurt Democrats politically

Invasion of Cambodia

1970; Nixon expanded the war into Cambodia to destroy Vietcong bases; sparked massive U.S. protests (e.g., Kent State).

Credibility Gap

Mismatch between what the government said and what Americans saw on TV; led to growing distrust in officials

Problems in Diem’s Government

South Vietnam’s leader was corrupt, anti-Buddhist, and unpopular; weakened U.S. efforts to build stable democracy

War Powers Act

1973; Limited president’s ability to send troops without Congress; passed after Vietnam to prevent future undeclared wars

Vietnamization

Nixon’s policy of training South Vietnamese forces to take over as U.S. troops withdrew

Dien Bien Phu

1954, Before Vietnam War; French defeat by Viet Minh that ended French rule in Indochina and led to U.S. involvement

Ho Chi Minh Trail

Supply route from North Vietnam to Vietcong in the South through Laos and Cambodia; vital to North’s war strategy

Geneva Accords

1954 Peace agreement dividing Vietnam at the 17th parallel; planned elections (which never happened) to unify the country

Tet Offensive

1968; Massive North Vietnamese surprise attacks during Tet holiday; psychological turning point as Americans realized the war wasn’t near victory

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

Alleged attack on U.S. ship by North Vietnam; led to Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, granted LBJ broad authority to use military force in SEA

Body Count Concept

U.S. strategy to measure progress by number of enemy killed; failed to reflect real success or public support.

Watergate

Nixon scandal unrelated to Vietnam, but led to his resignation; increased public distrust of government, especially after Vietnam.

Kent State

Ohio 1970; National Guard killed 4 students protesting Cambodia invasion; symbol of war division and backlash.

Detente

Period of eased tensions between the U.S. and USSR in the 1970s; focused on diplomacy and arms control (e.g., SALT)

Realpolitik

Nixon and Kissinger’s strategy: base foreign policy on practical interests, not moral ideals (e.g., opening relations with China).

SALT I

First arms control treaty between the U.S. and USSR; froze number of nuclear weapons; key moment in détente.

SALT II

Planned to reduce nuclear arms further; never ratified due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, but both sides largely followed it.

SDI

Strategic Defense Initiative/ Star Wars; Reagan’s proposed “Star Wars” missile defense system; increased pressure on USSR to spend more on defense.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

USSR tried to support communist government; U.S. backed Afghan rebels, worsening tensions.

Human Rights Foreign Policy

Under Carter, focused on promoting human rights abroad; sometimes conflicted with Cold War alliances.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

1989; Symbolized the collapse of communist control in Eastern Europe; Key event in ending the Cold War

Tiananmen Square Protests

Chinese students protested for democracy; Crushed by the military, showed China resisted reform unlike Europe.

Geneva Summit

Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time, began a series of talks that helped reduce tensions.

Impact of Charlie Wilson’s War

U.S. secretly funded Afghan fighters (mujahedeen); helped defeat USSR in Afghanistan, weakening Soviet morale and finances.

The Stinger Missile

U.S.-supplied weapon that allowed Afghan rebels to shoot down Soviet helicopters; key to Soviet failure in Afghanistan

Nixon visits China

Opened diplomatic relations, weakened alliance between China and USSR; huge shift in global Cold War dynamics

Ping-Pong Diplomacy

U.S. table tennis team’s visit to China in 1971; first step in opening relations between the two nations

Helsinki Accords

Agreement between U.S., USSR, and others to respect human rights and borders; USSR signed but often ignored terms

Nixon’s Foreign Policy

Realpolitik & Détente —> Signed Salt I, opening up relations w/ China

Ford’s Foreign Policy

Continued Détente, Signed Helsinki Accords in 1975

Carter’s Foreign Policy

Emphasis on human rights, Camp David Accords with Egypt and Israel. —> Initially supported SALT II, but stopped after invasion of Afghanistan

Reagan’s Foreign Policy

Called USSR the “Evil Empire”, boosted U.S. military spending, Launched SDI ("Star Wars"), worked w/ Gorbachev