A&P 2 - Unit 1 Special Senses and Endocrine System

What is the name of receptors that pick up smell, taste information?

Chemoreceptors

What is the name of the pain receptors?

Nociceptor

What receptors respond to temperature changes?

Thermoreceptors

What receptors pick up touch, pressure and stretch information?

Mechanoceptors

What receptors respond to light?

Photoreceptors

How is a receptor stimulated? What does it result in?

Change in its membrane potential, leads to an action potential

What is happening with the receptors during sensory adaptation?

Decreased response

What information do the Tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles detect?

Touch and texture

What information do the Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles detect?

Pressure, vibrations, pressure in joints

What receptors are activated when a muscle is stretched and lead to muscle contraction? This happens with the knee jerk reflex when the reflex hammer hitting the patellar ligament causes stretching of the quadriceps femoris muscle group

Stretch receptor, leads to muscle contraction

What is the purpose of the golgi tendon organ? What does it lead to?

Senses touch in tendons, the response is muscle relaxation

What is ataxia?

Lack of voluntary coordination and balance

What is the cause of acquired ataxia? Inherited ataxia? Sporadic ataxia?

Aquired Ataxia - Stroke, Multiple Sclerosis, brain tumor, vitamin deficiencies.

Inherited Ataxia - Genetic

Sporadic Ataxia - No known family history, unknown external trauma

What is the type of neuron for olfactory receptor cells? What is the type of receptor?

Bipolar neurons, Chemoreceptors

Write the order of the signal movement for the sense of smell, starting with the olfactory nerves and ending with the olfactory cortex

Olfactory nerves, olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, limbic system, temporal lobe

What is the name for the sense of taste? What are the receptors for taste?

Gustation (taste cells), Chemoreceptors

What activates taste cells resulting in sweet taste? Sour? Salty? Bitter? Umami?

Sweet - Carbohydrates

Sour - Acids H+

Salt - Salts Na+ or K+

Bitter - Mg and Ca

Umami - Amino acids, MSG

Which cranial nerves pick up taste information? What is the order of signal movement?

Facial, vagus, glossophyngeal

Impulses, medulla oblongata, thalamus, insula

What is the name of the eardrum that vibrates in response to sound waves?

Tympanic membrane

Name the three auditory ossicles (ear bones)

Malleus, incus, stapes

What is the name of the tube that connects middle ear to throat and equalizes pressure?

Auditory tube

What is the name for middle ear infection?

Otitis media

What is the function of each of the three parts of the inner ear (labyrinths)?

Cochlea - Hearing

Semicircular canals - Rotational movements

Vestibule - Horizontal and vertical movements

What is the function of the oval window? Round window?

Oval window - Transfers vibrations from stapes to cochlea

Round window - Disperses excess vibrations

What is the name of the organ inside the cochlea that contains hair cells which are the hearing receptor cells?

Spiral organ (Organ of Corti)

What is the name of the membrane located under the Spiral Organ and the hair cells?

Basilar membrane

What happens during sound reception with the basilar membrane and the hair cells?

Basilar membrane vibrates, hair cells vibrate and are activated

Write the signal pathway for hearing

Hair cells, cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve, medulla oblongata, midbrain, thalamus, temporal lobe

There are two regions in the vestibule. What are they called and what movements do they respond to?

Utricle - Horizontal movements

Saccule - Vertical movements

What is the name of the sensory organ at the base of the semicircular canals that senses rotational movements?

Crista ampullaris

What is the name for eyelids? What is the mucous membrane lining the eyelid?

Palpebrae, conjuncitva

What is the name of the gland that produces tears?

Lacrimal gland

What is the name of the duct that empties tears into the nasal cavity?

Nasolacrimal duct

Name the six eye muscles and their functions.

Superior Rectus - Up and medially

Inferior Rectus - Down and medially

Medial Rectus - Medially

Lateral Rectus - Laterally

Superior Oblique - Down and laterally

Inferior Oblique - Up and laterally

What happens to the lens when focusing on close objects?

The lens thickens and become convex

What is the name of the muscle that controls the amount of light entering the eye?

Iris

What happens to the iris and pupil with dim light? What happens with bright light?

Dim light - Radial muscles of the iris activate and the pupil dilates

Bright light - Circular muscles of the iris activate and the pupil contricts

What is refraction? Because of this, what is the orientation of the image focused on the retina?

Bending of light

Upside down and reversed left to right

What is the difference between myopia and hyperopia? What is astigmatism?

Myopia - Eyeball too long, hard to see objects in the distance

Hyperopia - Eyeball too short, hard to see objects up close

Astigmatism - Defect in curvature

What are the three neuron types that provide a pathway for impulses for vision?

Photoreceptors activate bipolar cells, bipolar cells activate ganglion cells

What type of photoreceptor responds to dim light and produces colorless vision?

Rods

What type of photoreceptor responds to bright light and produces sharp color vision?

Cones

Write the visual pathway, starting with the ganglion cells and ending with the visual cortex.

Ganglion cells, optic nerves, optic chiasma, optic tracts, thalamus, optic radiations, occipital lobe

What is tinnitus?

Buzzing and clicking sounds

What is the cause of glaucoma?

Blocking of aqueous humor

What is a cataract?

Clouding of lens

What is macular degeneration?

Abnormal blood vessels grow under the retina, leaking blood and fluid

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

Endocrine - Secrete into blood vessels

Exocrine - Secrete into ducts

What does it mean by the phrase “endocrine system is precise”?

Only target cells can respond to a hormone

What are the two types of hormones? Which ones are hydrophobic?

Steroid - Hydrophobic

Non-Steroid - Hydrophillic

What is the difference between upregulation and downregulation?

Upregulation - Increase number of receptors

Downregulation - Decrease number of receptors

Which type of hormones can enter the cell and cause protein synthesis or mitosis?

Steroid and Thyroid

Which type of hormones bind to receptors on the target cell surface to cause cellular changes?

Non-steroid (protein based)

What is the negative feedback inhibition mechanism for hormones?

Hormones inhibit glands that helped make them

How does the hypothalamus stimulate the cells of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

Sends releasing hormones to anterior pituitary through the hypophyseal portal system

How does the hypothalamus stimulate the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary?

Sends action potentials through its neurons

Which anterior pituitary hormone leads to muscle and bone growth, increases protein synthesis, and rate of fat usage?

Growth hormone

Which anterior pituitary hormone promotes milk production in lactating females?

Prolactin

Which anterior pituitary hormone increases secretion of thyroid hormones?

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Which anterior pituitary hormone stimulates secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex?

ACTH

Which two anterior pituitary hormones control sexual reproduction?

FSH and LH

What is the cause of hypopituitary dwarfism? Gigantism? Acromegaly?

Hypopituitary Dwarfism - Failure to make enough GH

Gigantism - Too much GH

Acromegaly - Overproduction of GH in adulthood

Does the posterior pituitary make hormones?

No

Which posterior pituitary hormone increases water uptake by the kidneys and increases blood pressure?

ADH

Which posterior pituitary hormone causes uterine contractions and milk ejection?

Oxytocin

What are the two thyroid gland hormones that increase metabolism and growth?

T3 and T4

What causes goiters?

Deficiency of iodine

What thyroid gland hormone reduces calcium level in blood and increases calcium in bones?

Calcitocin

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

High metabolic rate, sensitivity to heat, weight loss, protruding eyes

What is Graves disease?

Autoantibodies mimic TSH and overstimulate the gland and cause hypersecretion of T3 and T4

What is Hashimoto disease?

Autoantibodies destroy thyroid cells, hyposecretion of T3 and T4

What are the symptoms of infantile hypothyroidism? Adult hyperthyroidism?

Stunted growth intellectual disability

Low metabolic rate, lowered cognitive acuity

What is the function of the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

Remove calcium from bone, increase absorption of calcium in the kidneys and intestine, increases calcium in blood

What are the two hormones released by the adrenal medulla? What are their functions?

Epinephrine and norepinephrine. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, breathing

Name the three adrenal cortex hormones and their functions.

Aldosterone - Increase Na+ absorption

Cortisol - Increase blood glucose, decrease protein synthesis, reduce inflammation

Androgens - Aid sex hormones

What is Addison Disease caused by? What are the symptoms?

Hyposecretion of aldosterone and cortisol

Electrolyte and glucose imbalances, dehydration, low blood pressure

What is Cushing Syndrome caused by? What are the symptoms?

Hypersecretion of cortisol

Loss of bone and muscle mass, elevated blood glucose, water retention, weight gain

What are the three hormones released by the pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans)? Write their functions.

Insulin - Decreases blood glucose by allowing glucose to enter cells

Glucagon - Increases blood glucose by taking glucose out of liver cells where it was stored

Somatostatin - Helps regulate levels of insulin and glucagon

What is the difference between Type I and Type II Diabetes?

Type 1 - Genetic, immune cells destroy Beta cells which make insulin. The brain cannot function without glucose

Type 2 - Somewhat genetic, mostly lifestyle choices. Insulin receptors will not accept insulin anymore glucose cannot enter cells

What is the pineal gland’s hormone and its function?

Melatonin - Day/Night cycle, sleep cycle

What is the thymus gland’s hormone and its function?

Thymosin - Activates T lymphocytes

What does the hypothalamus do during stress?

Activates the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal gland. Leads to increased blood pressure and blood glucose. Can lead to heart attack or stroke.