AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

The process of how our brains organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events. It let’s us understand the world around us.

Bottom-Up Processing

Details to the big picture. How our brain makes sense of information by starting with small details and building up to a complete perception. Without prior knowledge or expectations

Top-Down Processing

Big Picture to Details. Interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations

Selective Attention

Process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ingnoring others

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment while tuning out other stimuli

Inattentional Blindness

When an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is on something else

Change Blindness

Failure to notice large changes in one’s environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

Schemas

The mental framework that helps us organize and interpret information in the world around us. It shapes our expectation and guides our attention

Perceptual Set

A tendency to perceive some aspects and ignore others. Shaped by expectations, experiences, and beliefs

Gestalt Psychology

How we perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than just a collection of parts

Figure-Ground

The ability to distinguish and object from its surroundings

Binocular Depth Cues

Visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Retinal Disparity

When each eye sees a slightly different picture because they are on different dimensions. Helps us see in 3D

Convergence

When eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

Monocular Depth cues

Visual indicator of distance and space that only requires just one eye

Relative Clarity

A depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed closer, objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther

Relative Size

A visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

Texture Gradient

Perceive texture to become denser and finer as it fades in the distance

Linear Perspective

Depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede in the distance

Interposition

When one object overlaps another, so we perceive the overlapping object as closer

Perceptual Constancies

The brain’s ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes

Shape Constancy

Objects have the same shape, regardless of the angle or distance we see it

Size Constancy

Objects remain the same size, even if its distances from us changes

Color Constancy

Objects remain the same color, despite varying lighting conditions

Apparent Movement

Perception of motion when there isn’t any actual movement

Metacognition

Thinking about one’s own thinking process

Executive Functions

Cognitive process that generates, organizes, plans, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Prototypes

Mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts

Assimilation

“Adding to existing” Cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas. It simplifies new information and makes it easier to understand

Accomodation

“Adjusting” Process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones. It allows for a more accurate understanding of the world

Convergent Thinking

Focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

Divergent Thinking

A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Functional Fixedness

Cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Algorithms

Step-by-Step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantees a correct solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or “rule of thumbs” that simplify decision making by reducing the cognitive function. Sometimes leads to bias in judgement

Representative Heuristics

Individuals make judgements about the probability of an event based on existing stereotypes or typical cases

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind

Mental Set

The tendency to approach a situation in a certain way because that method worked in the past. Prevents seeking alternative solutions

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus. It influences the response to a subsequent stimulus

Framing

How information is presented influences decisions and perceptions

Gambler’s Fallacy

Cognitive bias where individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because they have already invested so much

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

g (General Intelligence)`

Overarching mental ability that influences performance on various cognitive tests

Multiple Intelligence

Individuals possess different types of intelligence

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A numerical measure of an individual’s cognitive abilities compared too others in their age group through standardized tests. Their mental age

Standardization

The process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring. Ensures fairness and reliability

Achievement Tests

Assesses a person’s knowledge or skills in a specific area like academic subjects or job-related tasks

Aptitude Tests

Measures a person’s potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future. Assess innate abilities and predict future performances

Validity

The extent to which a test accurately measures what is intended to measure. The test matches the material

Construct Validity

Checks if a test really measures what it’s supposed to

Predictive Validity

Shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors

Reliability

“Repeat Results.” Consistency in test results over time and among different scorers

Test-Retest Reliability

Giving the same test to the same group twice. Measures how stable scores are over time

Split-Half Reliability

Divides a test into two halves and compares scores between them. Measures internal consistency

Flynn Effect

Average IQ scores increase over generations due to environmental and cultural factors: better food, healthcare, technology, and socially modeled education

Stereotype Threat

Individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

Stereotype Lift

Stereotypically advantaged groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group

Closure

explains how our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object

Similarity

how we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit

Proximity

When objects are placed close to each other, they are often perceived as a single group, while objects that are spaced farther apart are seen as separate entities.

Concepts

mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

Memory

information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later

Explicit Memory

involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought

Episodic Memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

Semantic Memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

Implicit Memory

type of memory that requires no conscious thought crucial for the automatic performance of a task

Procedural Memory

type of implicit memory that helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

Prospective Memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation; a biological process for memory

Working Memory Model

explains how our primary memory system, known as working memory, processes and temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks

Working Memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

part of working memory that handles visual and spatial information. it is what allows us to visualize objects and their location

Phonological Loop

Part of working memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information. Two parts: it temporarily holds spoken words and sounds and stores it through verbal repetition

Central Executive

The control center of working memory. It coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory

Multi-Store Model

Explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key systems that information must pass through it it’s going to be remembered

Sensory Memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period

Iconic Memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. Captures for only a fraction of a second

Echoic Memory

Type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. Helps us remember the last few words someone says

Short-Term Memory

It temporarily holds a small amount of information for 15-30 seconds. Has limited capacity

Maintenance Rehearsal

When you repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting it

Elaborative Rehearsal

When you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember. It helps promote stronger, more lasting memory storage

Long-Term Memory

Where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. Allows retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts

Effortful Processing

Type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory

Automatic Processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks processed automatically without attention

Encoding

first stage of memory where information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

Storage

process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

accessing and bringing stored information back into consciousness

Structural Processing

basic-level processing that focuses on the physical structure of information to encode memory

Phonemic Processing

medium-level processing that focuses on how the information sounds when encoding memory

Semantic Processing

deepest level of processing that focuses on the meaning of the information and connects it to existing knowledge

Shallow Encoding

Basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, like sound or appearance of words. Involves minimal attention and leads to fragile memory

Deep Encoding

Thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

Mnemonic Devices

helps people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall; uses patterns, vivid images, rhymes, acronyms, or associations

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations, usually familiar to the person

Chunking (Grouping)

groups individual pieces of information into larger, manageable units

Categories (Grouping)

Grouping related items together into categories. Structures information in a logical way

Hierarchies (Grouping)

Organizing information to a system of ranked categories or levels. Helps with understanding complex relationships between concepts