3: The Risorgimento and the establishment of a new Kingdom of Italy 1850–1861

What year did the Risorgimento occur

1829 (19th Century)

Why did the Risorgimento occur?

Too much foreign rule in the Italian Peninsula (Austrians and Spanish)

Nationalism

The idea that a group of people within a certain space has common values, religion, ethnicity, history, language, knowledge, or culture, and has the right to be sovereign.

Steps of unification

Expel foreign rulers and unite under either; pope,king,or republic

Italy's form of government

Constitutional Monarchy

The Risorgimento made Italy, Did it make Italians

No because although it united the Italian peninsula under one ruler, there was not a shared history or language.

Barriers to Unification

Regional Differences, Economic Divide, Papal Lack of Central Administration

Industrial Triangle

Milan, Turin, and Genoa

Reasons for unification

Get rid of foreign rulers, and clearing of debt for peasants under new government and more freedom

Carbonari

Secret society of elite 30-40 year olds talked together of the possibility of forming a nation

Young Italy

Organization led by Mazzini of young men ready for battle to unify Italy, but failed

Victor Emmanuel II

King of Piedmont Sardinia with forward thinking that hired Count Cavour

Count Cavour

"The Brain" Deciding to expand PS through the power of the King. Used the tactic of "transformism"

Transformism

Coalition between conservative and republicans to unify italy.

Garabaldi

Part of the Carbonari that sailed to the south and conquered Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples. Is stopped while trying to invade Rome. Gives the land to King Emmanuel

pact of Plombieres

when + what happened??

In 1858, Napoleon III met Cavour at Plombiéres war pact and agreed to intervene militarily on the side of the Piedmontese marked a key turning point at which the French agreed to intervene in a war

against Austria. (Part of the agreement meant that VEII's daughter Clothilde would marry Prince Jerome. described as 'the first casualty of the Second War of Italian Independence.')

Napoleon support French in declaring war against Austria dominance BUT it had to be seen as reasonable + ideal solution would be manoeuvring Austria into declaring war - turning point, crimean war can also be seen as a turning point

what regions would Piedmont gain in the pact of plombieres

lombardy,Venetia,Moderna, Parma, Romagna(northern part of papal states)

Kingdom of Upper Italy

what was the Plan set out at plombieres??

Italy to become a united italy loosely under the pope - palatable to Frencg as was committed to protecting the pope - prove later to be somewhat of a hindrance

what regions would the bourbons and the pope rule after the pact of plombieres

Tuscany + south east regions of papal states to be ruled by the bourbons

Rome + surroundings remain under papal control

HOW MANY TROOPS DID NAPOLEAN AND PIEDMONT PROVIDE

Napoleon provided 200,000 + Piedmont was to assemble army of 100,000 BUT only managed to provide 60,000

Reasons for second war of independence + french involvement

Napoleon's motives wanted to build on his families imperial legacy for France + his family + wanted a war that would boost his popularity but didnt want to be seen as an aggressor

Britain preoccupied with rebellion in india during their rule - so less likely to become involved in this war + make it messier

As a reward France to receive Savoy + -- later decided Nice also - how is this good for unification - heavy price.. - although didnt actually happen

+ provisional marriage agreement between VEII daughter Colthide and Napoleon's cousin

WHAT WAS THE ORSINI PLOT -

In 1857, Felice Orsini, an Italian nationalist, attempted to assassinate Napoleon - the 5 bombs made in Britain. - hoping to trigger revolution in France that would spread to Italy

WHT WAS THE INTENDED IMPACT OF THE ORSINI PLOT

Orsini believed that if Napoleon killed a new republican gov who was more sympathetic + who would assist Italy might be formed

prompted a change in Napoleon - decided to help Italy seek war with Austria. Motives unclear but being involved in a successful war against Austria might allow Napoleon to become more popular. NEXT ISSUE: NAPOLEON'S SELF INTEREST - was he more of a FR imperialist than a true supporter of unification?

WHEN WAS THE ORSINI PLOT

1857

When was the 2nd war of independence?

1859

HOW DID CAVOUR PREPARE FOR WAR??

After Plombieres C began to prep italians physiologically for war .eg by writing an emotional anti austrian speech for VEII to give in at the opening of parliament jan 1859

He also mobilised the Piedmontese army in March 1859

But couldn't begin war without France's support or Austria provocation

when was the National society founded ??

1857 by a group of exiles living in piedmont - link - 30,000 political refugees attracted to Piedmont after 1848 revolutions increased this nationalistic support

which places were the national society particularly interested in adding to Italy?

Sicily + Naples

what did the National Society do to further their cause of a unified Italy?

NEWSPAPERS e.g. Piccolo Corriere d'italia + posters,pamphlets and flyers of which were published in batches of 3000 - spread this sentiment + encouraged need for war against Austria dominance + necessity of unity

Appealed to the educated middle class as well as Mazzini And e.g. Danil Manin - building on the nationalist work already present

Significant turning point in the cause of unity - public support + war

How many copies of the Newspaper Piccolo Courier were in circulation by the 1850s?

around 4,000 copies

What did Mazzinians do during the 2nd war of independence?

Mazzinians launched a failed attempt to seize Naples - something more required for unification

what happened to Ferdinand 11

Ferdinand II - king of Naples was weakened as Russia had been its ally and was consequently now much weaker - war could be the answer as success now more likely

what was the reaction of foreign powers to the 2nd war of independence?

Foreign powers wanted to Avoid war - British Foreign secretary felt sorry for Italy but didn't want war provoked

Many worried that if Piedmont won - Austria defeated then France would replace it in terms of power + influence

Russia even promised to be neutral in the event of war >> even brokered meetings w Austria + fr to prevent war

How was the 2nd war of independence declared?

THEN HOW WAS WAR DECLARED?

Cavour sent army to mobilise at Austrian border March 1859

Austria responds by sending army in april

Austrian foreign minister demanded piedmontese demobilise in 3 days - they didn't + Austria declares war

FURTHER IMPACT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY

impact in central duchies april 1859

Agitated popular uprising in florence against Duke Leopold - he flees and a PG set up which demanded union w Piedmont

What did the national society do in may 1859?

National society also engineered peaceful relations in Tuscany, Modena and Parma - rulers all fled PGs set up + called for close relations w Piedmont - Napoleon weary as this was not the deal - a strongly unified Italy without the pope's influence could be a rival threat to france

what victories occurred for Piedmont in May + June 1859 of the 2nd war of independence?

Piedmontese army won minor battle victories at Palastera and Como which was secured by troops led by Garibaldi

what were the major battles of the 2nd war of independence ?

MAGENTA AND SOLFERINO

MAGENTA how many people died?

ISSUES W EQUIP

Not sufficient tents, generals incompetent, insufficient medical supplies

Only 1 doctor per 500 casualties for allies chances of survival bleak

BUT austria still held the quadrilateral - showed no sign of withdrawing from northern italy

40,000 allies killed - Austria under 6000 casualties

how many people died at Solferino?

40,000 both sides

what was Napoleon's reaction to these brutal battles esp after solferino

>>> Napoleon worried at loss of his men - he lost 12,000 + he was also afraid of Prussians influence + potential intervention - Prussia was becoming a key figure due to the zollverein: trading agreement and decline in Austrias power- as well as this the fact that N felt the Piedmontese were not pulling their weight + their poor performance -- resulted in Villafranca obvs limited unity

These battles were narrowly won by 120,000 strong wrench + 60,000 piedmontese - 20,000 recruited by the national society - link to their impact

what was the impact of the 2nd war of independence?

Villafranca July 1859 - secret peace agreement by France + Austria without consulting cavour - led to Cavour resigning !! oh no not a good time for unity

when was the Treaty of Zurich

1859 after Villafranca

when was Villafranca?

1859

what was decided at Villafranca?

Lombardy was to be given to Piedmont although to allow Austria to save face it would first be ceded to france and the passed on by Napoleon to VEII - 1 point for unification 👏

Previous rulers of central states - Modena, TUscany, Parma were to be restored in theory although soon apparent not possible

Papal confederation as mentioned in Plombieres w pope as leader set up

Austria still kept venetia + therefore still remained a powerful influence in Italy

But as N hadn't as promised in Plombieres hadn't driven out Austria he did not receive nice or savoy

what was decided at the Treaty of Zurich Nov 1859?

- confirmed main lines of villafranca settlement

- piedmont lost cavour but gained lombardy

- France through negotiating w austria had lost the initiative over future italy

- an understanding between france and Austria meant the unification cause now stalled

what developments were there in the early 1860s?

FOREIGN POWERS - Britain says italy should have the right to self determination - proposed by britain foreign secretary lord john russell

RETURN OF CAVOUR

After 9 months out of office returns as PM jan 1860

- seized the british idea and immediately started negotiating a way forward >> interested in Piedmontese expansion + kingdom of northern italy

Plebiscites

Piedmont annexes central duchies

Despite villafranca rulers of the central duchies did not return so instead PGs which favoured Cavour set up

who had plebiscites in march 1860

Tuscany and Emilia + MOdena + PArma came under PIedmonts control and were now fused into the united provinces of Central italy _

The national society's organisation and some might say rigging, persuasion and intimidation >>

Tuscany voted 368,000 for annexation EMELIA ( a combi of modena, parma, bologna etc) voted almost 25,000 to 160 in favour of annexation

Garibaldi had taken over the south and consequently accepts C's request for plebiscites in the south

Q - one italy one ; VE: yes or no?

what did Sicily and Naples vote

Sicily Y 432,000

Naples Y 1,302,000

Lack of support for bourbons most sicilians + neoplotians voting for end of bourbon rule rather than for unity or cavour

Arguably the start of Piedmontisation

Following this C persuaded Napoleon to do a deal on 21st jan 1860 >>>

whereby nice and savoy COULD go to france providing plebiscites on Piedmontese were held in central states

The plebiscites confirmed Cavour's place and the shape of unity - not to be led by revolutionary public figures like G etc but by Piedmont

What was the reaction of foreign powers to plebiscites etc- indicative of sense of piedmontese expansion??

BRITISH - decisive - due to belief in self determination

But also expressed concern re french expansion

1860 john russell issued a note destroying treaty of Vienna + stated support for united italy due to public support

RUSSIA - broke off diplomatic relations w Piedmont/italy at the unseating of Bourbon monarchy

AUSTRIA - Unsurprisingly reinforced their army in venetia

Loss of nice + savoy

what happened??

Cavour always the diplomat _ he released the only way to restore good relations with napoleon was to arrange for Nice + Savoy to be handed over to him without delay - as realised no hope of truly expelling Austria without outside help + Napoleon wouldnt be able to agree to an unlimited expansion of Piedmont

A secret treaty with VEII and Napolean in March transferred Nice + savoy to france - subject to a popular vote in both plCES

Votes in APRIL

Savoy 130,583 for 235 against

Nice 24,448 for 160 against

The vote in french speaking savoy not unexpected but in italian speaking nice vote suspicious

Presence of french army in Nice returning from Lombardy may have affected this decision

What was Garibaldi's reaction to the invasion of the south ??

GARIBALDI FURIOUS NICE WAS THE PLACE OF HIS BIRTH

He prepared a military expedition to prevent Nice being taken over by france BUT - divide by n outbreak of revolution in southern Italy in sicily

THe mille - red shirts - symbolises their willingness to spill blood

April 1860 news of uprising in sicily persuaded by crispi and Pilo to go to sicily rather than nice - G said it was in the name of VEII - nationalist ardent follower of mazzini- but now monarchist?

what did the mille do on their way/ in the south?

11th may mille defeat bourbon army + more volunteers join

Take Palmero in brutal battle against 20,000 bourbon troops - whole sicily conquered by end of july

G's scilly - abolition of macinato laws - as the people hated the tax on milling corn- privileged titles abolished - modernisation of public works and confiscation of church property

18th Aug G + 3,500 cross straits of Messina - escorted + protected by British Navy

Last bourbon king Fled - Naples secured without opposition 7th Sept 1860

WHY WAS G SUCCESSFUL IN THE SOUTH??

Gs leadership , experienced + adept in guerilla tactics

- pop support locals joined

- inspired foreign support

Bourbon gov unpopular + weak

Gs troops although poorly armed w out of date muskets were v well trained vs bourbon troops who were poorly motivated conscripts

what was the PROBLEM OF ROME

Sept 1860 G secured Naples

Cavour knew his ultimate goal was Rome - 'roma o morte' - heart of a unified italy

G now a major threat as this would threaten cavour's carefully crafted alliances with France + Napoleon as would feel pope threatened - potential for a major diplomatic incident 😨

How many troops did Garibaldi have that made Cavour see him a threat to Rome.. even though he had been taking over the Papal States in the name of VE

G has at least 20,000 troops + 9000 inspired by Mazzinian revolutionaries mobilisng on the border of the Papal states

when did Piedmont invade the papal states - to stop G from doing so

11th sept 1860 - Piedmont invades Papal States

French respond by breaking off diplomatic relations ( v catholic)

what happened on the 18th sept 1860?

Piedmontese army beats papal troops

G preoccupied w counterattack by bourbons - loose a lot of men as outnumbered but win

When was Teano

Teano - 28th October 1860 meeting between Garabaldi and VEII

what was decided at Teano?

7th Nov Garibaldi hands over south etc to VEII - UNITED ITLAY UNDER A MONARCHY APART FROM VENETIA + area around rome

The meeting confirms PIedmonts annexation of the south as G surrenders his political gains - his reputation deflated + he withdraws to the islands pf Caprera

As no leader now led to divisions amongst moderates and democrats

when was a Unified Italy Proclaimed?

Unified italian state declared under VEII proclaimed March 1861

4 - consolidating the kingdom of italy 1861 - 70

NEW ITALIAN STATE

Solving the Venetian question 1862-64

Aims of VEII

Diplomacy with prussia and war with Austria 1866

Union with venetia - Fr also

Jan 1861

- elections held for a new Italian parliament

Piedmontisation - feeling of being taken over in the south

March 1861

- new constitution adopted - based on the Statuto of 1848

Chamber of deputies elected on minimals suffrage - 2% of pop

States administrative structure was centralised - at local level prefects from north often had considerable influence in the name of the crown VEII - furthered disparities

Piedmonts taxes weights and measurements + idea of free trade improsed on rest of italy (Piedmontisation) - north already more industrial so south get poorer

what were the obstacles to unity after 1861?

- the papacy

- north south divide

- foreign powers

obstCLES TO UNITY AFTER 1861

1) FOREIGN POWERS

- Austrian + French influence AND rise of prussia

Q of Rome + Venetia - will Italy ever be unified?? - in the eyes of nationalists italy not unified at all!

Rome is under french + papal control

Venetia under Austria

G tries to convince Piedmont to take Venetia- but doesn't work

WHAT DID irredentists want?

nationalists who agitated for inclusion of R + V into italy and would act as critics of the new state in the 1860s - basically wanted to complete unity

obstCLES TO UNITY AFTER 1861

2) THE PAPAcY - ref earlier notes

Basic outline:

Catholic church = opponent to unification and refused to recognise new state of italy therefore undermining its legitimacy

Loss of temporal power + Pope's spiritual power under threat from new ideas

Oct 1870 Pope declared himself a prisoner of the vatican

Most italians catholic so massive issue

LINK esp in south where cultural traditions strong

obstCLES TO UNITY AFTER 1861

3) NORTH SOUTH DIVIDE _

Brigands war, 1861-65 the econ + social impact of the north south divide - lack of understanding from the piedmontese gov - naples + sicily more backwards re econ, social structure + legal matters - Piedmontese style gov not actually appropriate - imposed top down - pidemonisation?

V politically + socially diverse as cultural differences

Also plebiscites which had legitimised piedmonts takeover many people simply voting for piedmont bc they wanted to get rid of the bourbons not bc they necessarily supported PIedmonts endeavours

Also a bourbons ousted left a political vacuum - rocky - brigands war

Reaction to piedmontisation

when was the brigands war?

1861-65

SOCIAL

BRIGANDAGE

Made up of soldiers still loyal to bourbon monarchy + resultant red army members from Garabaldi's army who conquered the south as well as local peasants hoping to escape new oppressive Piedmont taxes + conscription

In 1861 how many young men took to the hills of Naples + Sicily?

25,000

the brigands war soon turned into a civil war took 4 years for Piedmontese army of how many to supress this disorder known as the silent civil war

10,000

ECONOMIC + link to issues consequently perpetuated in the south

how much debt did Newly unified italy face?

a public debt of 2,450 million lire in 1861 - set to double over the next 4 years - unification bought a much higher level of taxation as a result to attempt to pay off this debt - raise v unpopular - uprisings

Econ - what did unification cause linked to north south divide re textiles?

Unification bought removal of tariffs which had protected industries in south - result: collapse of southern industries - incl silk industry as now in direct competition w the north - led to prolonged deindustrialisation in the south

Econ - what did unification boost?

Unification also boosted industry in the north e.g. wool, cotton

The need to maintain armed forces in the south also contributed to exacerbation of italy's debt + south due to reasons aforementioned proved to be a poor source of income

Econ - what was introduced to cope with the debt of unification?

Macinato tax reintroduced in jan 1869 ( re corn milling) - big reaction > 2 weeks after it had been announced 25o people had been killed and 1000 wounded in riots

Econ - what did the government use the taxes for during the post unification period?

The Government used revenue from taxation to invest in public works, land reclamation + military - but generally for the north!

In early 1860s sardinia and sicily had no railway lines - during 1860s lines developed slowly

The gov lacked financial resources to fund a comprehensive national transport system - disparity of railways in north + south perpetuated divide >> e.g. in Apulia the development of the olive oil industry was stunted by lack of proficient transport systems

POLITICAL -

C gone + 5PMs between 1861 - 6 lacked charisma + leadership qualities

Corrupt ish political system

New assembly of 443 members elected by just 150,000 voters - to vote you needed to pay 40 lire in taxes + be literate so on average each member was only voted for by 300 people

other political impacts after unification In 1861

The rolling out of the Statuto as the constitution of italy - somewhat unified it naturally BUT meant the crown retained song powers + had the effect of weakening any chance of a strong parliamentary party system in Italy - lack stability

Deputies represented interests of constituents rather than party ideology + could easily lose seats if they didn't have the favour of ministers

political after unification - lack of understanding of the south

highlights north south divide

graphic illustration of lack of understanding from north - law passed in 1859 - applied to south under unification demanding all children have at least 2 years compulsory education when the vast majority of adult pop in south illiterate

how many decrees were instated in 2 days in Naples which reinforced the idea that reform by Piedmont was without consent - after 1861

53 decrees

Also the Ignorance of north led to policy errors + misjudgments as a result

PIEDMONISATION

Before C's death in june 1861 he decided that unification should be carried out by a process that became known as piedmontisation - the imposition of piedmontese laws, taxation system, currency + civil service

_ in reality this led to divisions of the new kingdom into 53 provinces - each governed by a prefect

Standardisation of money weights etc

The army was also to be piedmontised

PROBLEMS:

after unification with the south

Political vacuum - in south after end of bourbon rule

Reinforced belief that piedmonisation was without consent

Ignorance of the north - led to policy errors e.g. castasi law 1859 + monks + nuns charitable institutions undermined + intro of new jury system

underestimated the power of the mafia to corrupt + intimidate authorities

Piedmont's Lack of resources : human + financial - to administer the new state a major problem as poverty issues in south continued to be a drain on norths resources

the Piedmontisation of the army - as problem of what to do with the remeneats of the bourbon army and garibaldi's red shirts did what now?

- 2,191 officers of the bourbon army were offered commissions in the new italian army.many of the new soldiers took to the hills to fight as brigands in the new regime.

Cavour hoped to persuade the church to give up its last vestige by surrendering rome

i n return the church would be offered freedom of action

what was the churches reaction to Cavour's requests ?

Churches response:- unresponsive to C and broke of relations

Syllabus of errors in 1864 - statement against isms emphaised churches power + stance against the liberalism underlying the foundation of the new italian state + its hold on temporal powers - pope strong influence

He also proclaimed papl infallability in 1870 - asserting spiritual dominance and that the pope coudnt be wrong

Solution:- by the popes increasing distance from italian politics since the papal allocution in april 1849 - although the declarations etc reinforced respect for him as a religious leader due to all these various proclamations - he was no longer considered a serious political figure so his opinions of th new kingdom of italy were largely ignored.

Final pieces of the puzzle

1886 Austro- Prussian war >> venice transferred to italy

1870 Franco prussian war allows rome to be annexed to italy

ATTEMPTS TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEM OF VENICE

OCT 1861 - VEII determined to exterminate the austrians influence so sent envoys across europe to stir up war against Austria

PM Rattani went to paris to try to persuade Nap III to support but he failed + also some discussions w Mazzini but all came to nothing

what was founded in dec 1861

Garibaldi founds the italian freedom association - made up of nationalists/ Mazzinians

Focused on the issues of venice + Rome

G toured lombardy ( paid for by gov) to raise money for the conquest of venice

Problem with Austria would remain until events on they world stage changed

RISE OF PRUSSIA

Whilhelm I - king of Prussia 1861

Keen for prussian econ supremacy - rival Austria

1864 the zollverein ( free trade zone deal - which austria had been left out of) strengthened by other states e.g. baravia joining - these states had previously been under Austria's influence

Therefore prussia now seeking to win diplomatic support for war w austria

when did bismrak + Prussia's PM meet ?

oct 1865 Bismark - Prussias PM + Napoleon met at Biarritz and agreed that france would remain neutral in any forthcoming war if venice handed over to france + then eventually venice

BUT also fr simultaneously brokered a deal between italy + prussia whereby then Italy would receive venice in return for supporting prussia - as N still wanted some influence over italy

However N also signed a secret deal with AUSTRIA IN JUNE 1866 whereby Austria agreed to give venetia to France in return for french neutrality...

Austria + Prussia fall out over Holstein and war begins

when did Italy declare war on Austria? + how big was its army?

20th june 1866 italy declared war on Austria - had an army of 40,000 - bigger than austrias

AUSTRO - PRUSSIAN WAR - the 3rd war of independence

what battles were there + how prepared was Italy?

Italians ill prepared - defeated at Battle of Custoza ( again!) by austria

Austrians then crush prussians at Battle of Sedova 3rd july 1866

Austrians defeat Italian navy at Battle of Lissa - 20th july v humiliating

END OF THE 3rd WAR of independence

Austria forced to give Venetia to france who handed it over to italy

Many italians humiliated by this as they had supported the prussians

plebiscite results in Venice 1866 after the 3rd war of independence

October 1866 - Plebiscites held in Venice - returned 642,000 in favour of annexation.

1866 - last of french troops in Rome gone

attempts on Rome 1867

- dec 1867 G further attempt to seize rome - led to return of french troops - although Napoleon placated this - unsuccessful - pointless

Another attempt in 1867 - as gov led by Rattazzi new PM, a new opportunity as he turned to G who he sent on tour to whip up support, raise funds and speak out against the papacy.

He then attempted to seize rome again - In Oct he joined some volunteers to try to rise up against the papacy however uprising not forthcoming as many roman citizens were stubbornly loyal to papal rule

French toops returned

At the battle of mentana on the 3rd nov - G's troops mowed down