Pompeii and Herculaneum

HSC Ancient History - Pompeii and Herculaneum

Epigraphy

The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions.

Geographical setting

The natural features and resources of a specific location.

Fields

Agricultural areas used for cultivation.

Gulf of Naples

A body of water located off the coast of Naples.

Sarnus River

A river that flows through Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Neapolis, Misenum, Oplontus, Stabiae, Surrentum, Salernum

Ancient Roman cities located near Pompeii.

Pyroclastic surge

A fast-moving, turbulent cloud of volcanic ash and gas.

Archaeologists

Scientists who study human history and prehistory through excavation and analysis of artifacts.

Estelle Lazer

An archaeologist who conducted research on the health and nutrition of the Pompeii population.

Sara Bisel

An archaeologist who studied the skeletal remains of the Pompeii victims.

Andrew Wallace-Hadrill

A historian who emphasizes the complexity of understanding Pompeii due to the nature of available sources.

Mary Beard

A historian who highlights the specific knowledge we have about life in Pompeii and Herculaneum, but acknowledges broader unanswered questions.

Dorothea Castell

A historian who reiterates the challenges of fully understanding Pompeii and Herculaneum despite the wealth of material remains.

Market economy

An economic system in which goods and services are bought and sold in markets.

Standardized economy

An economy characterized by consistent practices and regulations.

Economic activity

The production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Forum

A central public space in ancient Roman cities used for various activities, including commerce and politics.

Social structure

The organization of a society into different social classes or groups.

Patricians

The aristocratic class in ancient Rome, consisting of wealthy and influential individuals.

Plebeians

The common people of ancient Rome, typically of lower social status than the patricians.

Familia

The basic unit of Roman society, consisting of family members and slaves.

Paterfamilias

The male head of a Roman household who had authority over family members and slaves.

Citizens

Individuals who had full legal rights and could participate in political life.

Freedmen

Former slaves who had been granted their freedom.

Slaves

Individuals who were owned by others and considered property.

Vici

Voting districts in ancient Roman cities.

Ordo decurionum

The town council of Pompeii, made up of wealthy municipal aristocrats.

Duumviri

Joint magistrates who governed Herculaneum.

Aediles

Officials responsible for supervising markets and public works.

Quaestor

An official responsible for managing the finances of a town or city.

Marcus Nonius Balbus

A prominent figure in Herculaneum who contributed to the development of the town.

Lucius Caecilius Jucundus

A Pompeian banker who was involved in various economic activities.

Aulus Umbricius Scaurus

A merchant known for his production of Garum, a popular Roman fish sauce.

Eumachia

A business entrepreneur and priestess in Pompeii.

Julia Felix

A prominent businesswoman in Pompeii.

Mamia

A prominent priestess in Pompeii.

Pompelian town council

The governing body of Pompeii, made up of wealthy municipal aristocrats.

Trade guilds

Associations of individuals involved in specific trades or occupations.

Waxed tablet

A tablet covered in wax that was used for writing in ancient Rome.

Forum

A central public space in ancient Roman cities used for various activities, including commerce and politics.

Magistrates

Officials elected to hold public office and carry out administrative duties.

Municipal aristocrats

Wealthy individuals who held positions of power and influence in the local government.

Quaestor

An official responsible for managing the finances of a town or city.

Inscription

A written or carved record that provides information or commemorates individuals.

Patron-Client relationship

A relationship based on mutual obligation, where elite families act as patrons to those in the lower class.

Self-governing in local matters

The ability to govern and make decisions on local matters, while still being subject to imperial decree from Rome (although this was a rare occurrence).

Electoral graffiti (programmata)

Slogans painted in red on shop fronts and walls facing busy streets, indicating the enthusiasm of the people of Pompeii in participating in elections. These slogans included the name of the candidate, the office they were standing for, their qualities, and often the names of their supporters.

Only men could vote

Although innkeepers and actors were not considered worthy to vote, only men had the right to vote in Pompeii.

Fierce competition for office

According to the ancient writer Cicero, it was harder to gain a seat in the local city council of Pompeii than in the Roman Empire's Senate, indicating the intense competition for political office.

Expectation of building public facilities

People in public office were expected to build public facilities at their own expense, as part of their responsibilities.

Pompeii's constitution

Pompeii had a constitution and was divided into vici/wards, which served as voting districts.

Trade guilds' political influence

Trade guilds, such as fullers, bankers, and religious associations, could exercise some political influence in Pompeii, alongside the magistrates.

Herculaneum's governance

Herculaneum was similar to Pompeii, run by two annually elected Duumviri (joint magistrates), with aediles supervising markets and public works.

Management of finances in Herculaneum

An inscription mentions an official (quaester) who would have managed the town's finances in Herculaneum.

Generosity towards Herculaneum

Men during the Augustan period were known for their generosity towards Herculaneum, likely due to its wealth. In return, some were elected to office.

Marcus Nonius Balbus

A Roman senator who became governor of Crete and Cyrene, known for his generosity towards Herculaneum. Statues and a building, Basilica Noniana, were dedicated to him.

Aediles

Officials who supervised markets and public works.

Quaester

An official responsible for managing the town's finances.

Patron-Client relationship

A relationship based on mutual obligation, where elite families acted as patrons to those in the lower class.

Domus atrium house

A type of housing with a central courtyard called an atrium, as seen in the House of Menander.

Atrium-peristyle house

A type of housing with both an atrium and a peristyle garden, as seen in the House of the Vetti.

Insulae

Apartment/lodging houses, as seen in the House of the Trellis.

Villas

Large country houses, as seen in the Villa of the Mysteries.

Function of housing in P+H

Majority of houses were domus or atrium style, with atrium-peristyle houses for the wealthy and insulae apartments for lower class. Wealthy houses were often not inhabited all year.

Public and private areas in atrium-style houses

Atrium was a space for clients and household gods, entrance area could have shops for rent.

Importance of peristyle in wealthy homes

It was a luxurious, decorated garden that could be open to the public and often had an outdoor dining area.

Comparison of Villa of Julia Felix and typical Pompeiian house

Julia Felix's house was larger and had private and public rooms for rent, while the atrium had no attached rooms but provided access to other rooms via corridors.

Foods found in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Shellfish, sea urchin, giraffe.

Significance of giraffe discovery

Only evidence of giraffe bones in Roman Italy, represents exotic foods.

Nature of food and dining in P+H

Wealthy houses had depictions of banquets and specialized dining rooms, while evidence of fast food sellers and small grills in poorer houses indicate a demand for quick meals.

Clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Wealthy wore togas, higher ranking people wore knee-length belted tunics, working-class citizens wore similar shorter garments, women of rank wore long tunics with a cloak over the head.

Health in Pompeii and Herculaneum

Generally well-nourished, tooth decay from grindstone particles, signs of obesity, diabetes, and common diseases like malaria and tuberculosis.

Water supply system in P+H

Aqueduct provided water to a water tower, siphoned into three main pipes for baths, wells, and housing.

Sanitation in P+H

Waste cleaning systems in public and private latrines.

Main leisure activities in P+H

Theatres, palaestra, gladiatorial games, amphitheatre.

Builder of amphitheatres

Aulus Clodius Flaccus, built in return for his second duumvirate at the Apollo games.

Social structure revealed by seating arrangements at the amphitheatre

Higher classes had better seats and more luxury, lesser classes did not.

Organization of religion in P+H

Public official cults in the public sphere, private worship of household gods and ceremonies in the private sphere.

Capitoline Triad

Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, representing different aspects of Roman society.

Significance of household gods

Paterfamilias had a genius, Lares protected the family, Penates were gods of the larder.

Offerings made to Lares

Bones of chickens, pigs, pinecones, figs, dates, grapes, hazelnuts, bread, and poppy seeds.

Discoveries of foreign cults in Pompeii

Show religious acceptance and incorporation of foreign deities into the Roman Pantheon.

Death and burial in Vesuvius cities

Bodies buried outside the city, religious ceremonies carried out, monuments erected for the rich.

Burials and social class in Pompeii

Higher religious class received higher honors, higher class received higher honors, poor received less.

Tombs of freedmen and women in Pompeii's cemeteries

Symbol of generosity and importance of religion.

Main foreign cults in P+H and significance

Isis, Sabazius, Lakshmi - significant because it indicated the significance and reach of foreign cultures and religions into Roman life

Evidence of other religions in Vesuvius cities

Jewish symbols, possible Christian shrine.

Funding of tombs

Town councillors, inhabitants and city district, unclear, brother.

Town council paying for tombs

Due to significant contributions to the town or religious involvement.

Roles of women in providing for the dead

Priestesses.

Greek influence in P+H

Seen in architecture, religion, art, and public spaces like the amphitheatre.

Egyptian influence in P+H

Depictions of pygmy people, art, religion, and culture.

Reasons for heavy influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures

Viewed as exotic and desirable.

Most significant area of influence

Art, visible through frescoes, pillars, columns, and floor tiles.

Conceptualization of Egypt

Perception of Egypt outside of Egypt.

Concept of Egypt in the cities

Foreign, exotic ideal.

Pompeian Social Status

The examination of Pompeian houses and their decoration was once believed to indicate the social status of their owners. However, recent studies suggest that the artifacts found in these houses may not necessarily indicate the wealth of the owners.

Population Estimates

Traditionally, estimating the number of people who occupied a house was thought to calculate the population of Pompeii. However, studies now show that the number of people varied from one household to another, ranging from single-person dwellings to villas with dozens of people.

Commerce and Trade

Previous studies viewed Pompeii as a trading city, deriving its wealth from external trade. However, it is now believed to be a "consumer city," where the wealthy elite consumed manufactured goods and agricultural products rather than trading them.

Impact of AD 62 Earthquake

It was once thought that the eruption of Vesuvius caught the entire population of Pompeii by surprise. However, recent research suggests that the people of Pompeii were aware of the impending eruption, and the rich and wealthy had already departed, possibly after the earthquake.