Unit 1 AP World - 1200-1450 C.E

Manors

What: Manors were self-sufficient estates that provided food, protection, and work, forming the backbone of feudal life
When: 9th–15th centuries CE
Where: Western Europe (England, France, Germany, etc.)
Who: Lords, knights, peasants, and serfs in feudal society
Why: Manorialism was the economic system that supported feudalism, showing how land, labor, and protection were exchanged in medieval Europe.

Decentralized Government

What: A political system where power is spread among local rulers or regions instead of being concentrated in a central authority
When: Common throughout history, especially in the Middle Ages (c. 500–1500 CE)
Where: Feudal Europe, early Japan (shogun/daimyo system), and other regions without strong central states
Who: Local lords, nobles, military leaders, and regional rulers held power instead of kings/emperors
Why: It developed because central governments were weak, leading to fragmented authority but also local autonomy and stability in times of chaos

Three-Field System

What: An agricultural method where farmland was divided into three parts — one planted with a winter crop, one with a spring crop, and one left fallow — to increase food production and soil fertility
When: Began spreading in Europe around the 8th–9th centuries CE and became common in the High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1300 CE)
Where: Medieval Europe, especially Western and Northern Europe
Who: European peasants/serfs working under lords on manors
Why: It boosted crop yields, supported population growth, and helped fuel the economic revival of Europe during the Middle Ages.

Magna Carta

What: A charter of rights that limited the power of the English king and established the principle that rulers must follow the law
When: 1215 CE but took fruition in 1400s
Where: England, signed at Runnymede
Who: King John of England and rebellious English nobles
Why: It set the foundation for constitutional government, influenced later democratic ideas, and checked absolute monarchy

Chivalry

What: A code of conduct for knights emphasizing loyalty, honor, military service, and protection of the weak (especially women and the Church)
When: Developed during the High Middle Ages (c. 11th–15th centuries CE)
Where: Feudal Europe, especially in France and England
Who: Medieval knights, nobles, and the Christian Church promoting ideals of behavior
Why: It reinforced feudal and religious values, shaping medieval European culture and influencing later ideas of honor and gentlemanly conduct

Bubonic Plague

What: A devastating pandemic caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, spread by fleas on rats, leading to massive population loss
When: Peaked in Europe between 1347–1351 CE, with recurring outbreaks for centuries after
Where: Originated in Central Asia, spread along trade routes through the Middle East, and devastated Europe
Who: Tens of millions of people across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; merchants and travelers spread it unknowingly
Why: It caused the death of 1/3–1/2 of Europe’s population, weakened feudalism, disrupted economies, and shifted social structures, paving the way for change in Europe

Dar-al-Islam

What: A term meaning “House of Islam,” referring to the regions under Muslim rule where Islamic law, culture, and trade flourished
When: 7th century CE onward, especially strong during the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE)
Where: Spanned the Middle East, North Africa, Spain (al-Andalus), parts of India, and later West Africa and Southeast Asia
Who: Muslim rulers, scholars, traders, and diverse populations living under Islamic governance
Why: It unified vast areas through religion, law, and trade networks, promoting cultural diffusion, scientific advancements, and economic prosperity

Dhimmi

What: Non-Muslims (mainly Jews and Christians, sometimes Zoroastrians) living under Muslim rule who were granted protected status in exchange for paying a special tax (jizya)
When: From the early Islamic Caliphates (7th century CE) onward
Where: Across Dar al-Islam, including the Middle East, North Africa, Spain (al-Andalus), and South Asia
Who: Muslim rulers and non-Muslim communities such as Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians
Why: The dhimmi system allowed religious diversity within Muslim states while reinforcing Islamic authority and providing economic benefits through taxation

Shari’a Law

What: An Islamic legal system derived from the Qur’an, Hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and scholarly interpretation, covering both religious and daily life matters
When: Developed from the 7th century CE onward, especially formalized during the Abbasid Caliphate (8th–13th centuries)
Where: Practiced across Dar al-Islam — the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, and later parts of West Africa and Southeast Asia
Who: Muslim rulers, religious scholars (ulama), and Muslim communities
Why: It unified Muslim societies under a common legal and moral code, influencing governance, social order, and culture in Islamic civilizations

Dhows

What: Traditional sailing vessels with lateen (triangular) sails that made them highly maneuverable and effective for long-distance trade
When: Used as early as the 600s CE and became especially important during the Indian Ocean trade boom (c. 800–1500 CE)
Where: Indian Ocean basin — East Africa, Arabia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia
Who: Muslim, Indian, and East African traders and sailors
Why: Dhow ships expanded maritime trade, spread goods (like spices, textiles, and ivory), and facilitated cultural diffusion across the Indian Ocean world

Sufis

What: Muslim messengers/missionaries who emphasized spiritual closeness to God through meditation, prayer, poetry, and missionary work rather than strict legalism
When: Emerged in the 8th–9th centuries CE and grew influential during the Golden Age of Islam and beyond
Where: Originated in the Middle East but spread widely across Dar al-Islam, including South Asia, Central Asia, Africa, and Southeast Asia
Who: Sufi mystics, teachers, and missionary orders such as the Whirling Dervishes (Mevlevi Order)
Why: Sufis played a major role in spreading Islam to new regions through their adaptability and focus on personal devotion, helping Islam become a global religion

Sikhism

What: A monotheistic religion blending elements of Islam (belief in one God) and Hinduism (reincarnation, karma), emphasizing devotion, equality, and community service
When: Founded in the late 15th century CE (c. 1469)
Where: Originated in the Punjab region of South Asia (modern-day India/Pakistan)
Who: Founded by Guru Nanak and developed by later Sikh Gurus and their communities
Why: Sikhism challenged existing religious divisions, promoted social equality, and became an important cultural and political force in South Asia

Terrace Farming

What: An agricultural technique where sloped land is cut into step-like terraces to create flat areas for farming and reduce soil erosion
When: Practiced since ancient times; in the AP World era, especially important during the classical to post-classical periods (c. 200 CE–1500s CE)
Where: Used in mountainous regions such as the Andes (Inca Empire in South America), East Asia (China, Japan, Philippines), and Mesoamerica
Who: Farmers and civilizations like the Inca, Chinese, and other mountain-based societies
Why: Allowed societies in difficult terrain to grow surplus food, support population growth, and sustain complex civilizations

Neo-Confucianism

What: A revival and reinterpretation of Confucian thought that blended Confucian ethics with elements of Buddhism and Daoism, focusing on morality, order, and rationalism
When: Emerged during the Song Dynasty (c. 9th–12th centuries CE) and spread widely in East Asia afterward
Where: Originated in China and influenced Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
Who: Chinese scholars like Zhu Xi and later East Asian elites and governments who adopted it
Why: It reinforced traditional Confucian social hierarchies (filial piety, patriarchy), strengthened state authority, and shaped education and governance across East Asia

Jongs

What: Large, sturdy wooden ships developed under the Song Dynasty, equipped with multiple decks, watertight bulkheads, and sternpost rudders, making them advanced for long-distance maritime trade
When: Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE), with use continuing into later dynasties
Where: Built in China, used across the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, and East Asia’s maritime trade networks
Who: Chinese merchants, sailors, and state-sponsored traders under the Song Dynasty
Why: Song jongs (junks) revolutionized seafaring, expanded China’s role in Indian Ocean trade, and demonstrated Chinese technological innovation in shipbuilding

Scholarly Gentry

What: A social class in China made up of educated landowners who passed the civil service exams and served as bureaucrats, combining social prestige with political influence
When: Prominent during the Tang (618–907 CE) and Song (960–1279 CE) dynasties and continued in later dynasties
Where: China, throughout the imperial bureaucracy and rural landholdings
Who: Educated landowning elites who became government officials and scholars
Why: The scholarly gentry reinforced Confucian values, maintained social order, and formed the backbone of China’s imperial administration

Civil Service Exams

What: A system of exams in imperial China used to select government officials based on knowledge of Confucian classics, merit, and administrative ability
When: Established during the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE), expanded during the Tang (618–907 CE) and Song (960–1279 CE) dynasties
Where: China, across the imperial bureaucracy
Who: Aspiring bureaucrats, scholars, and members of the gentry class
Why: The exams promoted meritocracy, reinforced Confucian values, limited aristocratic influence, and created a professional, educated government

Champa Rice

What: A fast-ripening, drought-resistant strain of rice that allowed for multiple harvests per year
When: Introduced to China during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE)
Where: Originated in the Champa Kingdom (modern-day Vietnam) and spread to southern China
Who: Farmers and the Song Dynasty government that encouraged its cultivation
Why: Champa rice increased agricultural productivity, supported population growth, and contributed to economic and urban expansion in Song China

Angkor Wat

What: A massive Hindu temple complex later converted to Buddhism, known for its intricate architecture, bas-reliefs, and symbolic representation of Mount Meru
When: Built in the early 12th century CE
Where: Angkor, in the Khmer Empire (modern-day Cambodia)
Who: King Suryavarman II and the Khmer civilization
Why: Angkor Wat reflected the Khmer Empire’s political power, religious devotion, and advanced engineering/architectural skills, serving as both a spiritual center and a symbol of imperial authority

Zimbabwe

What: A Bantu-speaking kingdom in southeastern Africa known for its gold trade, cattle economy, and stone city structures
When: Flourished c. 11th–15th centuries CE
Where: Southeastern Africa, primarily in modern-day Zimbabwe
Who: Bantu-speaking peoples, including ruling elites, traders, and farmers
Why: Zimbabwe was a major political and economic center in southern Africa, connecting inland resources like gold and ivory to the Indian Ocean trade network, and showcasing complex social and political organization

Swahili

What: A cultural and linguistic blend of Bantu, Arab, Persian, and later Indian influences, forming city-states engaged in Indian Ocean trade
When: Flourished c. 9th–15th centuries CE
Where: East African coast — modern-day Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and nearby islands
Who: Bantu-speaking Africans, Arab and Persian traders, and local city-state elites
Why: The Swahili coast was a hub of maritime trade, cultural exchange, and Islamization, connecting Africa to the broader Indian Ocean world

Slash and Burn

What: An agricultural method where forests or vegetation are cut and burned to clear land for farming, enriching the soil with ash nutrients
When: Used since prehistoric times and continued in various regions through the classical and post-classical eras (c. 500 CE onward)
Where: Practiced in Africa, the Americas, Southeast Asia, and parts of Oceania
Who: Small-scale farmers and subsistence agricultural communities
Why: Allowed communities to farm in dense forests or nutrient-poor soils, supporting subsistence living, but required rotation as soil fertility declined

Ge’ez

What: An ancient Semitic language used in Ethiopia, originally spoken but later becoming the liturgical language of Ethiopian Christianity
When: Spoken from around the 5th century BCE; became primarily a written/liturgical language by the early centuries CE
Where: Ethiopia and Eritrea
Who: Aksumite rulers, Ethiopian Christian clergy, and scholars
Why: Ge’ez preserved religious texts, helped unify the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and contributed to the cultural and literary heritage of Ethiopia

Stelae

What: Tall, carved stone monuments often used to commemorate rulers, mark graves, or celebrate achievements
When: Prominent in the Aksumite Empire (c. 4th–6th centuries CE) and earlier civilizations
Where: Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia) and other parts of Africa and Mesoamerica
Who: Aksumite kings, elites, and artisans
Why: Stelae demonstrated political power, architectural skill, and religious or cultural significance, serving as symbols of state authority and commemoration

Bet Giyorgis (Chruch of St. George)

What: A rock-hewn church carved entirely out of solid rock, dedicated to Saint George, and a masterpiece of Ethiopian Christian architecture
When: Built in the 12th–13th centuries CE during the Zagwe Dynasty
Where: Lalibela, Ethiopia
Who: Ethiopian Christian rulers of the Zagwe Dynasty, architects, and laborers
Why: Bet Giyorgis exemplifies the fusion of religion, politics, and architecture, serving as a center for worship and pilgrimage and demonstrating Ethiopia’s Christian heritage and engineering skill

Mansa Musa

What: Emperor of the Mali Empire, famous for his immense wealth, pilgrimage to Mecca, and promotion of Islam, education, and trade
When: Ruled c. 1312–1337 CE
Where: Mali Empire, West Africa, with travels to Mecca (Hajj)
Who: Mansa Musa, Mali’s elites, Muslim scholars, and merchants
Why: His pilgrimage showcased Mali’s wealth, strengthened Islamic influence in West Africa, boosted trade and scholarship (especially in Timbuktu), and left a lasting cultural and economic legacy

Griots

What: West African storytellers, poets, and musicians who preserved oral history, genealogy, and cultural traditions
When: Practiced from ancient times through the post-classical era and still present today
Where: West Africa, particularly in Mali, Senegal, and surrounding regions
Who: Griots (specialized oral historians) serving kings, nobles, and communities
Why: Griots maintained historical memory, reinforced social and political structures, and transmitted culture in societies without widespread written records

Juula

What: West African merchant class known for long-distance trade, especially in gold, salt, and kola nuts, often operating within the trans-Saharan trade network
When: Flourished c. 11th–16th centuries CE
Where: West Africa — Mali, Ghana, and surrounding regions, linking to North Africa
Who: Juula merchants, local rulers, and trading partners across the Sahara
Why: Juula facilitated commerce, spread Islam, and connected inland African economies to the broader trans-Saharan trade network

Great Mosque of D’jenne

What: A large adobe (mudbrick) mosque, famous for its Sudano-Sahelian architecture and annual maintenance festival
When: Originally built in the 13th century CE; rebuilt in 1907 CE
Where: Djenné, Mali, West Africa
Who: Mali rulers, Muslim communities, architects, and laborers
Why: Served as a center of Islamic worship, education, and trade, showcasing the spread of Islam and the cultural achievements of West African societies

Great Serpent Mound

What: A large prehistoric earthen effigy mound shaped like a serpent, likely used for ceremonial or astronomical purposes
When: Built c. 1070 CE (Late Woodland period)
Where: Southern Ohio, North America
Who: Indigenous peoples of the region, possibly Adena or Fort Ancient cultures
Why: The mound reflects complex social organization, religious practices, and astronomical knowledge of pre-Columbian North American societies

Animism

What: A belief system in which natural objects, animals, and the environment are thought to have spiritual essence or souls
When: Practiced since prehistoric times and continues in some regions today
Where: Africa, the Americas, Australia, and parts of Asia
Who: Indigenous peoples, tribal communities, and early societies
Why: Animism shaped cultural practices, rituals, and social organization, influencing how communities interacted with the environment and passed down traditions

The Great Spirit

What: A central spiritual force or supreme being in many Native American belief systems, often seen as the creator and sustainer of life
When: Beliefs in the Great Spirit date back to pre-Columbian times and continue in some Native traditions today
Where: North America, among various Indigenous peoples (such as the Sioux, Algonquian, and Iroquois)
Who: Native American tribes and spiritual leaders
Why: The Great Spirit unified tribal worldviews, guided rituals, and reinforced respect for nature, shaping the religious and cultural identity of many Indigenous societies

Chinampas

What: Man-made “floating gardens” created by piling mud and vegetation into rectangular plots, used for intensive agriculture
When: Developed by the Aztecs around the 14th–16th centuries CE
Where: Valley of Mexico, especially around Lake Texcoco (Aztec capital Tenochtitlán)
Who: Aztec farmers and state-supported agricultural workers
Why: Chinampas maximized food production in limited lake environments, supported population growth, and sustained the Aztec Empire’s urban centers

Pochteca

What: A professional merchant class in the Aztec Empire who conducted long-distance trade and also served as spies for the state
When: Flourished during the Aztec Empire (c. 14th–16th centuries CE)
Where: Central Mexico, especially Tenochtitlán and trade routes across Mesoamerica
Who: Pochteca merchants, Aztec rulers who relied on them, and trading partners across regions
Why: They boosted the Aztec economy, spread goods and information, and reinforced state power by linking distant regions to the empire

Quechua

What: The language of the Inca Empire, used for administration, culture, and oral tradition (not a written language)
When: Rose to prominence with the Inca Empire (c. 15th–16th centuries CE) and is still spoken today
Where: Andes Mountains region — modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina
Who: The Inca state, rulers, administrators, and Andean peoples under Inca control
Why: Quechua unified the diverse peoples of the Inca Empire and remains one of the most widespread Indigenous languages in South America

Quipu

What: A system of knotted strings used for record-keeping, accounting, and communication in the Inca Empire
When: Most widely used during the height of the Inca Empire (c. 15th–16th centuries CE)
Where: Andes Mountains region, throughout the Inca Empire (modern-day Peru and neighboring areas)
Who: Inca administrators, officials, and record keepers called quipucamayocs
Why: Quipu allowed the Inca to track population, taxes, labor, and resources without a written alphabetic language

Mit’a System

What: A labor tax system requiring communities to provide workers for public projects, agriculture, and military service
When: Used during the Inca Empire (c. 15th–16th centuries CE), later adapted by the Spanish after conquest
Where: Andes Mountains region, across the Inca Empire (modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile)
Who: The Inca state and its subjects; later the Spanish colonial authorities
Why: It ensured the empire had the manpower to build infrastructure (like roads and terraces), support agriculture, and maintain control, becoming a key part of the Inca’s centralized system

Tambos

What: Waystations or inns along the Inca road system that provided food, lodging, and supplies for travelers, messengers, and the army
When: Built and used during the Inca Empire (c. 15th–16th centuries CE)
Where: Throughout the Andes Mountains along the Inca road network (modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina)
Who: Managed by the Inca state and supported by local communities through the Mit’a system
Why: Tambos allowed efficient communication, military movement, and resource distribution, helping the Inca maintain control over a vast empire

Caravanserai

What: Roadside inns that provided lodging, food, and water for travelers and their animals along major trade routes
When: Flourished during the height of Afro-Eurasian trade, especially from the 9th to 15th centuries CE
Where: Across the Silk Roads, Persia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa
Who: Used by merchants, pilgrims, and travelers; often maintained by Islamic rulers or local governments
Why: Caravanserais promoted long-distance trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of goods, technology, and ideas across Afro-Eurasia

Caravan

What: A group of travelers or merchants, often with pack animals like camels, journeying together for safety and efficiency on trade routes
When: Common throughout ancient and medieval times, especially between the 7th and 15th centuries CE during the height of Silk Road and Trans-Saharan trade
Where: Across Afro-Eurasia—particularly the Sahara Desert, Middle East, and Central Asia
Who: Traders, merchants, pilgrims, and guides from various regions and cultures
Why: Caravans made long-distance trade possible by offering protection against bandits and ensuring mutual support across harsh environments

Camel Saddle

What: A riding and load-bearing device placed on camels that allowed riders to control and stabilize themselves or cargo during travel
When: Developed around the 5th–6th centuries CE and widely used throughout the medieval period
Where: Originated in the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa, later spreading across the Sahara and Silk Road routes
Who: Invented and used by Arab and Berber nomads and traders
Why: The camel saddle revolutionized trade by making camels more effective for long-distance travel, boosting Trans-Saharan and Silk Road trade networks

Dhow ships

What: Traditional sailing vessels with one or more lateen (triangular) sails, used for long-distance trade across the Indian Ocean
When: Originated around the 7th century CE and were widely used throughout the medieval period
Where: Along the coasts of East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and Southeast Asia
Who: Used primarily by Arab, Indian, and Swahili merchants
Why: Dhow ships enabled efficient maritime trade, spreading goods, cultures, and religions—especially Islam—across the Indian Ocean trade network

Lateen Sails

What: Triangular sails mounted at an angle on a long yard, allowing ships to sail effectively against the wind
When: Developed in the Mediterranean around the 2nd century CE and spread widely by the 7th–15th centuries CE
Where: First used in the Mediterranean, later adopted in the Indian Ocean and by Arab traders
Who: Innovated by Mediterranean sailors and perfected by Arab merchants and navigators
Why: Lateen sails greatly improved maneuverability and efficiency in maritime trade, helping expand Indian Ocean and Mediterranean trade networks

Swahili

What: A coastal East African culture and language that blended African, Arab, and Persian influences through trade
When: Emerged around the 8th century CE and flourished between the 10th–15th centuries CE
Where: Along the East African coast—from modern-day Somalia to Mozambique, including islands like Zanzibar and Kilwa
Who: Bantu-speaking Africans who interacted with Arab and Persian merchants
Why: The Swahili culture and language developed as a result of Indian Ocean trade, becoming a major center for commerce, Islam, and cultural exchange

Monsoon

What: Seasonal wind patterns that bring heavy rains in one season and dry conditions in another, crucial for agriculture and trade
When: A natural yearly cycle known and used by traders since ancient times, especially from the 3rd century BCE onward
Where: Indian Ocean region—affecting South Asia, East Africa, and Southeast Asia
Who: Utilized by Indian, Arab, and East African merchants for timing their voyages
Why: The predictable monsoon winds made long-distance maritime trade possible, linking Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia into one major trading system

Zheng He

What: A Chinese admiral, explorer, and diplomat who led large maritime expeditions to expand China’s trade and influence
When: Lived from 1371–1433 CE; voyages took place between 1405–1433 CE during the Ming Dynasty
Where: Sailed from China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Arabia, and East Africa
Who: A Muslim eunuch serving under Emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty
Why: Zheng He’s voyages demonstrated China’s naval power, promoted trade and tribute relationships, and spread Chinese culture and influence across the Indian Ocean

Malay Diasporic Communities

What: Settlements of Malay-speaking traders who lived outside their homeland while maintaining cultural and economic connections
When: Formed mainly between the 8th–15th centuries CE during the height of Indian Ocean trade
Where: Across the Indian Ocean basin—especially along the coasts of East Africa, Sri Lanka, and southern India
Who: Malay merchants and sailors from island Southeast Asia (modern-day Indonesia and Malaysia)
Why: These communities spread Southeast Asian culture, language, and goods while strengthening trade networks and facilitating cultural exchange across the Indian Ocean world

Arab Diasporic Communites

What: Settlements of Arab merchants who established trading communities outside the Arabian Peninsula while spreading their culture and religion
When: Developed between the 7th–15th centuries CE during the expansion of Indian Ocean and Trans-Saharan trade
Where: Along the coasts of East Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia—especially in places like Kilwa, Calicut, and Malacca
Who: Arab Muslim traders and sailors from the Arabian Peninsula
Why: These communities facilitated trade, spread Islam, and blended Arab culture with local traditions, creating lasting cultural and economic connections across the Indian Ocean world

Khan

What: Title meaning “ruler” or “leader” in Mongol culture; Genghis Khan was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
When: Lived 1162–1227 CE; united the Mongols and began conquests around 1206 CE
Where: Originated in the Mongolian steppes; expanded across Central Asia, China, Persia, and Eastern Europe
Who: Genghis Khan, Mongol clans, and conquered peoples
Why: As Khan, Genghis Khan created the largest contiguous empire in history, facilitated trade and communication across Eurasia, and spread technologies, ideas, and culture through the Pax Mongolica

Khanate

What: A political and territorial division of the Mongol Empire, each ruled by a khan under the authority of the Great Khan
When: Established after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227 CE and solidified in the mid-13th century
Where: Across the Mongol Empire, including the Golden Horde (Russia), Ilkhanate (Persia), Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia), and Yuan Dynasty (China)
Who: Mongol rulers (khans), local administrators, and conquered populations
Why: Khanates allowed the Mongol Empire to manage its vast territories efficiently while maintaining Mongol authority, facilitating trade, communication, and the Pax Mongolica

Chinggis Khan

What: Founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, known for uniting Mongol tribes and creating the largest contiguous empire in history
When: Lived 1162–1227 CE; became Great Khan in 1206 CE
Where: Mongolian steppes, with conquests spanning Central Asia, China, Persia, and Eastern Europe
Who: Genghis Khan, Mongol clans, and conquered peoples
Why: He revolutionized military organization, expanded trade and communication networks, and established the foundation for the Mongol Empire and the Pax Mongolica

Kubilai Khan

What: Grandson of Genghis Khan, fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, and founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China
When: Lived 1215–1294 CE; ruled as Great Khan 1260–1294 CE
Where: Yuan Dynasty (China) and nominally over the entire Mongol Empire
Who: Kublai Khan, Mongol rulers, Chinese bureaucrats, and the subjects of the Yuan Dynasty
Why: He completed the conquest of China, promoted trade along the Silk Roads, integrated Mongol and Chinese administration, and strengthened cultural and economic exchange across Eurasia

Transhumance

What: A seasonal pastoral practice in which herders move livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures
When: Practiced since ancient times and continued through the medieval and post-classical eras
Where: Common in mountainous and steppe regions, including Central Asia, Europe, and parts of Africa
Who: Pastoralist communities, nomadic herders, and their livestock
Why: Transhumance allowed efficient use of pasture resources, supported pastoral economies, and facilitated the survival of communities in regions with variable climates

Yurts

What: Portable, round tents made of felt and wood, used as dwellings by nomadic pastoralists
When: Used for centuries by Central Asian nomads, including during the Mongol Empire (c. 13th–14th centuries CE)
Where: Central Asia, particularly the steppes of Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and surrounding regions
Who: Nomadic herders, Mongols, and other pastoralist communities
Why: Yurts provided durable, portable housing suited to a mobile lifestyle, supporting pastoralism, seasonal migrations, and military campaigns

Pax Mongolica

What: A period of relative peace and stability across the Mongol Empire that allowed safe trade, travel, and cultural exchange
When: Mid-13th to late 13th century CE, following the consolidation of Mongol territories after Genghis Khan’s conquests
Where: Across Eurasia, from Eastern Europe to China
Who: Mongol rulers, merchants, travelers, and local populations under Mongol control
Why: It facilitated the expansion of the Silk Roads, increased trade and communication, spread technologies and ideas, and encouraged cross-cultural interaction throughout Eurasia

Uighur

What: A Turkic-speaking people who adopted Islam and played a key role as merchants, scribes, and administrators along trade routes
When: Prominent during the Mongol Empire (13th–14th centuries CE) and earlier in Central Asia
Where: Central Asia, particularly the region now known as Xinjiang, China
Who: Uighur merchants, scribes, and officials under the Mongols
Why: They facilitated communication, record-keeping, and trade across the Mongol Empire, helping administer the vast territories and maintain the Pax Mongolica

Marco Polo

What: Venetian merchant, traveler, and writer who documented his journey across Asia and the court of Kublai Khan
When: Lived 1254–1324 CE; traveled to Asia c. 1271–1295 CE
Where: From Venice, Italy, across Central Asia to China (Yuan Dynasty)
Who: Marco Polo, Kublai Khan, Mongol officials, and various Asian communities
Why: His travels provided Europeans with one of the first detailed accounts of Asian lands, cultures, and trade, inspiring later exploration and contributing to knowledge of the Silk Roads

Kievan Rus

What: A federation of Slavic and Norse peoples centered around trade, agriculture, and early state-building, considered a precursor to modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus
When: Flourished c. 9th–13th centuries CE
Where: Eastern Europe, along the Dnieper River and the surrounding region
Who: Slavic tribes, Varangian (Viking) rulers, and local elites
Why: Kievan Rus facilitated trade between the Baltic and Black Seas, adopted Orthodox Christianity, and laid the foundations for later Russian and Eastern European states

Nation-States

What: Centralized political units with defined borders, a shared identity, and strong government authority replacing feudal fragmentation
When: Developed and strengthened between 1450–1750, especially after the Renaissance and during the Age of Exploration
Where: Western and Central Europe—examples include Spain, France, England, and Portugal
Who: Monarchs, bureaucrats, militaries, and increasingly unified populations under one ruler
Why: Nation-states enabled efficient taxation, large standing armies, overseas expansion, and competition for power, leading to empire-building and global trade networks

Absolutism

What: A political system where the monarch holds total power over the government, often claiming divine right to rule
When: Most prominent from the 1600s to early 1700s during the age of strong centralized monarchies
Where: France, Russia, Prussia, Spain, and other European states
Who: Monarchs like Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia, and Philip II of Spain
Why: Absolutism allowed rulers to control taxes, armies, and religion, strengthening their states and expanding their power—but often led to conflict, rebellion, and limits on monarchic power later (e.g., English Civil War)

Hanseatic League

What: A commercial and defensive alliance of trading cities that dominated Northern European trade
When: Peaked between the 13th and 15th centuries, though it continued into the 17th century
Where: Northern Europe—especially the Baltic and North Sea regions, including cities like Lübeck, Hamburg, and Danzig
Who: German merchants, city-states, and trading guilds
Why: The league protected member cities, standardized trade practices, and controlled trade in goods like timber, fish, and grain, making it a major economic power in medieval and early modern Europe

Great Dying

What: The massive population collapse of Indigenous peoples in the Americas caused mainly by European-introduced diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza
When: Began after 1492 and continued through the 16th and 17th centuries
Where: Across the Americas—North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean
Who: Indigenous American populations; Europeans whose arrival unintentionally spread disease
Why: The Great Dying destroyed up to 90% of some native populations, weakening societies, enabling European conquest, and creating labor shortages that helped drive the rise of African slavery in the Americas

Little Ice Age

What: A period of global cooling that caused lower temperatures, shorter growing seasons, and crop failures
When: Roughly from the 14th to the 19th century, with coldest periods in the 1600s
Where: Most noticeable in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia
Who: Affected farmers, rulers, and populations who faced famine, social unrest, and migration
Why: The cooling led to food shortages, economic strain, and helped spark events like peasant revolts and witch hunts, influencing societies during the 1450–1750 era

General Crisis

What: A period of widespread social, political, and economic instability linked to warfare, famine, and climate stress (often connected to the Little Ice Age)
When: Mid-17th century, especially the 1640s–1660s
Where: Across Europe, China, the Ottoman Empire, and parts of the Americas
Who: States, rulers, and ordinary people affected by conflict, declining harvests, and rebellions (e.g., English Civil War, Ming collapse)
Why: Climate cooling, war, and economic pressures caused revolts, state breakdowns, and power shifts, making the 17th century one of the most turbulent periods in world history

Columbian Exchange

What: The global transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia after European contact
When: Began after 1492 and continued through the 16th–18th centuries
Where: Across the Atlantic Ocean connecting the Americas, Europe, Africa, and later Asia
Who: Europeans, Indigenous Americans, Africans (including enslaved people), and their societies
Why: It dramatically reshaped diets, economies, and populations—crops like potatoes and maize boosted global population, while diseases caused massive Native American deaths and slavery expanded to meet labor needs in the Americas

Mercantilism

What: An economic system where governments controlled trade to increase national wealth by exporting more than importing
When: Dominant in Europe from the 1500s to the 1700s
Where: Western European states like Spain, France, England, and the Netherlands
Who: Monarchs, government officials, colonial administrators, and merchants
Why: Mercantilism justified colonial expansion, monopolies, and navigation laws because colonies supplied raw materials and markets for goods, strengthening the power of nation-states and fueling competition and conflict between empires

Encomienda System

What: A labor system where Spanish colonists were granted control over Indigenous people and could demand tribute and labor from them
When: Established in the early 1500s after the Spanish conquest of the Americas
Where: Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America
Who: Spanish encomenderos (landholders) and Indigenous populations forced to work for them
Why: It provided labor and wealth for Spanish colonists, facilitated resource extraction, and caused harsh exploitation and population decline, eventually leading to reforms and increased use of African slavery

Mit’a System

What: A forced labor system where Indigenous communities had to send a portion of their population to work, originally Inca and later adapted by the Spanish
When: Inca version existed before the 1500s; Spanish colonial version used mainly in the 1500s–1600s
Where: Andes region, especially Peru and Bolivia
Who: Inca communities first, later Indigenous Andean peoples under Spanish colonial rule
Why: The mit’a supplied labor for mines (especially silver at Potosí), infrastructure, and agriculture, producing huge profits for Spain and shaping the colonial economy in South America

Trading post empire

What: A form of imperial control based on establishing fortified trading sites rather than conquering large territories, focused on controlling commerce
When: Most prominent in the 1500s–1600s during early European maritime expansion
Where: Along key coastal areas in Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and East Asia—especially around the Indian Ocean
Who: Portugal first (e.g., Goa, Malacca), followed by the Dutch and later the English
Why: Trading post empires allowed Europeans to dominate sea routes, tax trade, and control chokepoints without needing large land empires, reshaping global commerce through naval power and monopoly strategies

Creoles

What: People of pure Spanish descent born in the Americas, below Peninsulares in the colonial social hierarchy but often wealthy and influential
When: During Spanish colonial rule in the Americas, especially from the 1500s–1700s
Where: Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America
Who: Creoles, Peninsulares (Spanish-born elites), Indigenous and African populations
Why: Creoles resented Peninsular privilege and eventually led many independence movements in the 18th–19th centuries, shaping Latin American political revolutions and nation-building

Mestizos

What: A social group made up of people of mixed European (usually Spanish) and Indigenous American ancestry
When: Emerged in large numbers after Spanish colonization beginning in the 1500s
Where: Spanish colonies across Mexico, Central America, and South America
Who: Indigenous peoples and Spanish settlers whose interactions led to mixed-heritage populations
Why: Mestizos formed a key part of the colonial social hierarchy, often occupying middle positions between elites and Indigenous/African groups, and played important roles in labor, society, and later independence movements

Peninsulares

What: Spaniards born in Spain who held the highest political, economic, and social positions in the Spanish colonies
When: During the era of Spanish colonial rule from the 1500s–1700s
Where: Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines
Who: Spanish-born administrators, officials, priests, and landowners sent from Europe
Why: Peninsulares dominated government and church offices, creating resentment from Creoles and contributing to later independence movements when Creoles sought more power and equality

Mulattoes

What: A social group made up of people of mixed European (usually Spanish or Portuguese) and African ancestry
When: Emerged in large numbers after European colonization and the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1500s–1700s
Where: Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Caribbean, Brazil, and parts of mainland Latin America
Who: African enslaved people, free Africans, and European settlers whose interactions produced mixed-heritage communities
Why: Mulattoes occupied a middle position in the colonial caste system, often facing discrimination but sometimes gaining freedom or status, shaping social hierarchies and racial dynamics in the colonies

Settler Colonies

What: Colonies where large numbers of Europeans settled permanently, creating societies that resembled Europe rather than just extracting resources
When: Most strongly developed from the 1600s–1700s during Atlantic colonization
Where: North America (British colonies), Southern Africa, Australia, and parts of New Zealand
Who: European settlers, Indigenous peoples affected by displacement, and colonial governments
Why: Settler colonies focused on land ownership, agriculture, and family migration, often causing conflict with Indigenous populations and laying the foundations for future nation-states like the United States and Canada

British/Dutch East Indian Company

What: Private trading corporations granted government charters to control trade, wage war, and govern territories in Asia
When: Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded 1602; British East India Company (EIC) founded 1600; most powerful in the 1600s–1700s
Where: Indian Ocean region—India, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, China, and coastal trading ports
Who: European merchants, company officials, local rulers, and Asian traders
Why: These companies dominated spice and textile trade, used military force, created trading monopolies, and laid foundations for European imperial rule in Asia (Dutch in Indonesia, British eventually in India)

Yasak

What: A tribute system in which conquered peoples had to pay the Russian state in goods, usually furs
When: Used by Russia from the 1600s onward during Siberian expansion
Where: Siberia and other frontier regions under Russian control
Who: Indigenous Siberian peoples paying tribute to Russian officials and settlers
Why: Yasak enriched the Russian state, fueled the fur trade, and helped finance Russia’s growth as an empire, making Siberian conquest economically valuable

Cossack

What: Semi-independent warrior groups known for horseback riding, frontier defense, and service in the Russian Empire
When: Most prominent from the 1500s onward, especially during Russian expansion in the 1600–1700s
Where: Steppes of Southern Russia and Ukraine, along frontier regions like the Don and Ural rivers
Who: Cossack communities made up of peasants, adventurers, and escaped serfs; later allied with the Russian tsars
Why: Cossacks helped expand Russian territory, defended borders, collected yasak, and acted as elite cavalry, becoming crucial to Russia’s rise as a land empire

Peter the Great

What: Tsar of Russia who modernized and westernized the country, reformed the military, government, and society, and expanded Russian territory
When: Ruled 1682–1725 CE
Where: Russia, especially in Moscow and the newly founded St. Petersburg
Who: Peter the Great, Russian nobles (boyars), military officers, and the general population
Why: To strengthen Russia as a major European power, centralize authority, expand territory, and adopt European technology, culture, and administrative practices

Westernization

What: The process by which Peter the Great adopted European technology, culture, government practices, and military organization to modernize Russia
When: Mainly during his reign, 1682–1725 CE
Where: Russia, especially in Moscow and St. Petersburg
Who: Peter the Great, Russian nobles (boyars), artisans, and military personnel
Why: To transform Russia into a major European power, strengthen the military, centralize government, and bring Russian society in line with contemporary Western Europe

Akbar

What: The third Mughal emperor, known for consolidating Mughal rule in India, promoting religious tolerance, and expanding the empire
When: Ruled 1556–1605 CE
Where: Mughal Empire, primarily in northern and central India
Who: Akbar, Mughal officials, Hindu and Muslim subjects
Why: Akbar strengthened imperial administration, promoted cultural and religious integration (including his policy of Sulh-i-Kul), expanded trade, and left a legacy of a strong, centralized, and relatively tolerant empire

Aurangzeb

What: The sixth Mughal emperor, known for expanding the empire to its greatest territorial extent but enforcing stricter Islamic policies
When: Ruled 1658–1707 CE
Where: Mughal Empire, covering much of the Indian subcontinent
Who: Aurangzeb, Mughal administrators, Hindu and Muslim subjects
Why: His expansion strengthened the empire militarily but religious intolerance, high taxes, and military campaigns caused internal dissent and weakened Mughal stability after his death

Devshirme

What: A system in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were taken from their families, converted to Islam, and trained for military or administrative service
When: Practiced mainly from the 14th–17th centuries CE
Where: Ottoman territories in the Balkans and Eastern Europe
Who: Christian boys, Ottoman officials, and the sultan
Why: Devshirme supplied the Ottoman Empire with loyal soldiers (Janissaries) and administrators, strengthened central control, and integrated conquered populations into the state apparatus

Janisarries

What: Elite infantry soldiers of the Ottoman Empire, originally recruited through the devshirme system and trained as loyal, professional troops
When: Established in the late 14th century and prominent through the 17th century
Where: Ottoman Empire, especially in Istanbul and key military campaigns
Who: Christian boys taken via devshirme, converted to Islam, and trained; commanded by Ottoman officials and the sultan
Why: Janissaries strengthened the Ottoman military, centralized state control, and served as a key tool for expansion and maintaining internal order

Daimyo

What: Powerful Japanese landholding lords who controlled vast estates and maintained private armies of samurai
When: Prominent during the Sengoku period (c. 15th–16th centuries) and continued into the Tokugawa shogunate (17th–19th centuries)
Where: Japan, throughout the country’s feudal domains
Who: Daimyo, samurai retainers, peasants, and the shogun
Why: Daimyo maintained regional control, engaged in warfare and alliances, and played a central role in Japan’s political and military structure before and during the unification under the Tokugawa shogunate

Samurai

What: The warrior class of feudal Japan, serving the daimyo and bound by the code of Bushido emphasizing loyalty, honor, and martial skill
When: Prominent from the 12th century (Kamakura period) through the 19th century (Meiji Restoration)
Where: Japan, across various feudal domains
Who: Samurai warriors, their daimyo lords, and the communities they protected
Why: Samurai enforced the authority of the daimyo, maintained order, and upheld cultural and military traditions, shaping Japan’s feudal society and governance

Shogun

What: The military ruler of Japan who held de facto political power, while the emperor remained a symbolic figure
When: Prominent from the 12th century (Kamakura shogunate) through the 19th century (end of Tokugawa shogunate in 1868)
Where: Japan, governing from military capitals like Kamakura, Kyoto, and Edo (Tokyo)
Who: Shoguns, daimyo (regional lords), samurai, and the emperor
Why: Shoguns centralized military and political power, controlled the daimyo, maintained social order, and shaped Japan’s feudal system for centuries

Zamindars

What: Landholding elites in South Asia who collected taxes from peasants and acted as intermediaries between the state and rural population
When: Prominent during the Mughal Empire (16th–18th centuries) and continued under British colonial rule
Where: India, primarily in agrarian regions controlled by the Mughals and later the British
Who: Zamindars, peasants, and imperial or colonial authorities
Why: Zamindars helped the state collect revenue efficiently, maintained local order, and held significant social and economic power, but sometimes exploited peasants, contributing to social tensions

Transatlantic Slave System

What: A network of forced labor in which millions of Africans were captured, transported across the Atlantic, and sold as slaves in the Americas
When: Began in the 16th century and peaked between the 17th–18th centuries
Where: West and Central Africa, the Americas (Caribbean, Brazil, North America), and Europe as the trading intermediary
Who: Enslaved Africans, European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British, French), African intermediaries, and colonial plantation owners
Why: It supplied labor for plantations and mines, fueled the Atlantic economy, facilitated the growth of European empires, and had lasting social, demographic, and cultural impacts across three continents

Cartaz

What: A naval trade license or pass issued by the Portuguese to control commerce in the Indian Ocean
When: Early 16th century, during Portuguese maritime expansion (c. 1502 onward)
Where: Indian Ocean trade routes, especially near India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia
Who: Portuguese crown and naval authorities, merchants, and local rulers/traders
Why: The cartaz system allowed Portugal to monopolize trade, regulate merchants, and enforce maritime dominance, giving them control over key ports and shipping lanes

Indentured Servant

What: A laborer who agreed to work for a set number of years in exchange for passage, room, and board, often in the Americas
When: Common from the 16th through the 18th centuries, especially during early European colonization
Where: North America (English colonies), Caribbean, and other European colonies
Who: European migrants (mostly from Britain, Ireland, and Germany), colonial landowners, and colonial administrators
Why: Indentured servitude provided a labor supply for plantations and settlements before the widespread use of enslaved African labor, helping establish colonial economies

Secularism

What: A worldview or policy that separates religion from government, education, and public affairs. One wants to show off their status, so why can’t they?
When: Became influential during the Renaissance and Enlightenment (15th–18th centuries CE)
Where: Europe, especially in Italy, France, and later across Western Europe
Who: Thinkers, writers, political leaders, and artists who promoted non-religious perspectives
Why: Secularism encouraged scientific inquiry, rational thought, and political reform, reducing the dominance of religious authorities in governance and society

Individualism

What: The belief in the importance and value of the individual, emphasizing personal achievement, expression, and independence
When: Emerged during the Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) and continued through the Enlightenment
Where: Europe, particularly in Italy, France, and the Low Countries
Who: Thinkers, artists, writers, and political figures who emphasized human potential and personal identity
Why: Individualism encouraged creativity, innovation, personal responsibility, and challenged collective or purely religious norms, influencing art, science, and political thought

Humanism

What: An intellectual movement that emphasized the study of classical texts, human potential, and achievements, often focusing on secular subjects
When: Began in the 14th century and flourished during the Renaissance (14th–16th centuries)
Where: Italy, especially Florence, and later across Western Europe
Who: Scholars, writers, artists, and educators such as Petrarch, Erasmus, and Leonardo da Vinci
Why: Humanism promoted education, critical thinking, and appreciation of human creativity, influencing art, literature, philosophy, and the development of modern Western thought

Protestant Reformation

What: A religious movement that challenged the authority and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the creation of Protestant churches
When: Began in 1517 CE with Martin Luther’s 95 Theses and continued through the 16th century
Where: Primarily in Germany, Switzerland, England, and later across Europe
Who: Martin Luther, John Calvin, Henry VIII, European rulers, and followers of Protestantism
Why: It reduced the Catholic Church’s power, promoted religious diversity, encouraged literacy and education, and influenced political, social, and economic changes across Europe

Martin Luther

What: German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging Catholic Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences
When: 1483–1546 CE; famously published the 95 Theses in 1517 CE
Where: Germany, primarily Wittenberg
Who: Martin Luther, the Catholic Church, German princes, and followers of Lutheranism
Why: Luther’s actions sparked the Protestant Reformation, leading to religious fragmentation in Europe, the rise of Protestant churches, and changes in politics, education, and society

Thirty Years War

What: A destructive European conflict fought over religion (Catholic vs. Protestant) and political power
When: 1618–1648 CE
Where: Central Europe, primarily the Holy Roman Empire (modern-day Germany and surrounding regions)
Who: Protestant and Catholic states within the Holy Roman Empire, France, Spain, Sweden, and the Habsburg rulers
Why: It devastated populations, weakened the Holy Roman Empire, shifted European power balances, and ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which established the concept of state sovereignty

Extirpation

What: The forced eradication or elimination of a group, culture, or species, often used in the context of Indigenous peoples under colonial rule
When: Particularly during European colonization of the Americas, 16th–18th centuries
Where: Americas, especially areas of Spanish, Portuguese, and later European settlement
Who: European colonizers and Indigenous populations
Why: Extirpation was used to suppress resistance, enforce colonial control, convert or remove populations, and seize land or resources, often resulting in cultural loss and demographic collapse

Jesuits

What: Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order focused on education, missionary work, and defending Catholicism
When: Founded in 1540 CE; active throughout the 16th–18th centuries
Where: Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia
Who: Ignatius of Loyola (founder), Jesuit missionaries, and students in Jesuit schools
Why: Jesuits promoted the Counter-Reformation, spread Christianity globally, established schools and universities, and influenced politics and culture in European and colonial societies

Closed-Door Edict

What: A Japanese policy that strictly limited foreign contact, trade, and influence, effectively isolating Japan
When: Implemented in 1635 CE and remained largely in effect until 1853 CE
Where: Japan, primarily enforced at major ports like Nagasaki
Who: Tokugawa shogunate, Japanese citizens, and foreign traders (Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Chinese)
Why: The policy aimed to maintain political stability, prevent foreign influence (especially Christianity), and control trade, preserving Tokugawa authority and Japanese culture

Scientific Revolution

What: A period of major advances in scientific thought, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and the questioning of traditional authorities
When: Roughly 1543–1700 CE, beginning with works like Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Where: Europe, especially Italy, England, France, and the Netherlands
Who: Scientists and thinkers such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and Johannes Kepler
Why: It transformed understanding of the natural world, challenged religious and classical authority, laid the foundations for modern science, and influenced philosophy, technology, and European intellectual life