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Compound

A combination of 2 or more elements; ex. H2O

Salt

chemical compound formed from an acid and a base; ex. NaCl

Diatomic Molecules

molecules made up of two atoms of the same element, H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

Ionic Bonds

Electrons are transferred to another atom because the electronegativities between the two molecules are so big.

Covalent Bonds

Atoms share electrons; usually between 2 nonmetals

Hydrogen Bonds

partial attraction between atoms; usually happens in hydrogen molecules bonded to F, O, or N

Why is it important that water is a polar molecule?

The polarity of water allows it to have important emergent properties

What are the properties of water?

High specific heat, cohesion/adhesion, expansion(freezing), universal solvent

What makes a bond polar?

In a covalent bond between two atoms of different electronegativities, the bonding electrons will be pulled towards the more electronegative atom

What makes a bond non-polar?

atoms share the electron equally with each other because of low electronegativity differences

What is a structural isomer?

Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula; ex. ketones and aldehydes

What is a cis-trans isomer?

have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements

What is an enantiomer isomer?

mirror images of each other

Explain primary level of protein structure.

chain of amino acids

Explain secondary level of protein structure.

foils and coils

Explain tertiary structure of protein structure.

the overall, three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain; the amino acid chain folds over itself

Explain quaternary level of protein structure.

Multiple amino acid chains join together to form a big clump of protein.

What is the monomer of carbohydrates?

monosaccharides

What is the polymer of carbohydrates?

polysaccharides

Bonds in carbohydrates

glycosidic linkage

Purpose of carbohydrates

main source of energy for living things

Monomer of proteins

amino acids

Polymer of proteins

polypeptides

Bonds in proteins

peptide bonds

Monomer of lipids

None

Polymer of lipids

none

What are the different types of lipids

fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Bonds in lipids

ester bonds

Purpose of lipids

Insulation, stores energy

Monomer Nucleic Acids and what is it made up of?

nucleotides: made of sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base

What is the difference between a nucleotide and nucleoside?

Nucleoside doesn't have a phosphate

Polymers of nucleic acids

DNA and RNA

Bonds in nucleic acids

phosphodiester bonds

What kinds of bond is in glycogen that can be eaten and digested by animals?

Alpha 1,4

What are the 3 parts of the cytoskeletal system and what are their functions?

microfilaments - help cells move; made of protein called actin
microtubules - help cell functions such as mitosis; help regulate cell growth and movement; helps assemble mitotic spindle
-Used radioactive nitrogen

Put the levels of organization in order from largest to smallest in an ecological system.

Biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ, tissue, cells, organelles, molecules

What is reductionism?

approach that reduces complex systems to simple components that are manageable to study; analyze small parts to understand the whole

What are some properties of life? (7)

order, evolutionary adaptation, regulation, energy processing, growth and development, response to the environment, reproduction

What are the 3 domains of life?

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Explain negative feedback.

Negative feedback is a process in which the response reduces the initial stimulus; this is seen in most processes

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. (Charles Darwin)

Reproductive fitness

the capacity to pass one's genes on to subsequent generations

Systems biology vs reductional biology

reductionism studies the individual components of a biological system in isolation while systems biology aims to study the parts of a system when they are part of a whole

What happens if the proton # changed?

the element changes

What happens if the number of neutrons changed?

It would create an isotope

What would happen if the electron number changed?

It would create an ion

Van der Waals interactions

Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges

Why is OH polar?

O is more electronegative than H, so the electrons of the covalent bonds spend more time closer to O than to H

What is a hydrophilic molecule?

molecule that is attracted to water

What is a hydrophobic molecule?

water fearing molecule

What is the difference between acids and bases in regard to hydrogen ion concentration?

Acids are substances that increase the ion concentration of a solution, while bases decrease the hydrogen ion concentration

What numbers on the pH scale represent bases and acids?

Bases are found in numbers closer to 14, while acids are in numbers closer to 0

hydroxyl group

OH-; compound name: alcohol

carbonyl group

C=O; ketones have c=o in the middle of the structure while aldehydes have c=o on the end sticking out to the side

carboxyl group

A -COOH group, found in organic acids.

amino group

NH2; compound name is amine

sulfhydryl group

-SH; this group is seen in cysteine

phosphate group

PO4

methyl group

CH3

Explain dehydration synthesis

H and OH on the ends of monomers break away to make an H2O molecule and the remaining monomer bits bind in an Oxygen bond

Explain hydrolysis

The bond between monomers is broken by addition of a water molecule, with the hydrogen from the water attaching to one monomer, and the hydroxyl (OH) attaching to the other. *Essentially reverse of dehydration reaction

Describe the differences between neutral, basic, acidic, polar, and nonpolar R groups.

-Nonpolar: typically hydrocarbons or have benzene rings. EX: R group being CH2CH
-Polar: side chains that have acids, amides, alcohols, or amines. Will typically have an O or N in it to create more of a electronegativity difference. EX. HO-CHCH3
Acidic: If the side chain contains an acid functional group. EX. aspartic and glutamic. Typically has carboxyl group.
-Basic: If the side chain contains an amine functional group. It will have NH2 within the R group.
-Neutral: If the R group has an amine AND a c=O, it is NEUTRAL, not basic. Amino acid is neutral unless there is an extra acid or base.

nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis

Golgi body

-A structure in a cell that receives proteins and other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic reticulum, packages them, and distributes them to other parts of the cell
-Cis: receiving side
-Trans: shipping side

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

chromatin

Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones'
Heterochromatin is densely packed while euchromatin is loosely packed

lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

vacuoles

Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another

rough er

A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins

smooth er

Makes lipids

plasma membrane

A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells

mitochondria

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur

chloroplasts

organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis

Peroxisomes

Function in detoxification of alcohol and production of bile in the liver or kidneys

microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

microtubules

Spiral strands of protein molecules that form a tubelike structure

intermediate filaments

Threadlike proteins in the cell's cytoskeleton that are roughly twice as thick as microfilaments

compare and contrast eukaryotes and prokaryotes

eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles; in prokaryotes, there is no contained DNA; prokaryotes are unicellular

Explain the sodium potassium pump

-uses ATP
-goes from low to high gradient (against concentration)
-ATP changes shape of channel
-sodium out; potassium in
-2 potassiums are pumped in while 3 sodiums are pumped out

cohesion vs adhesion

Cohesion = attraction of particles for each other
Adhesion = attraction of particles for a surface

solvent vs solute

A solute is the substance to be dissolved (sugar). The solvent is the one doing the dissolving (water).

What makes up the membrane?

phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins

How does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity?

It can both increase and decrease the fluidity of the membrane

What kind of molecules pass through a cell membrane most easily?

Small, hydrophobic molecules

What is a hypotonic solution?

the solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell so water moves into the cell causing plant cells to swell and animal cells to swell and burst

What is a hypertonic solution?

The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell so water moves out of the cell and into the solution causing the cell to plasmolyze

What is an isotonic solution?

Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane

Explain active transport.

the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy. Moves against the gradient and requires ATP.

Explain passive transport.

Does not require energy to help move the particles through the cell membrane.

What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions?

Catabolic reactions is when something is being broken down and anabolic reactions is when large molecules are built from smaller molecules.

ATP cycle

How a cell regenerates its ATP supply. ADP forms when ATP loses a phosphate group, then ATP forms as ADP gains a phosphate group.

ATP hydrolysis

ATP is converted to ADP & phosphate energized myosin heads (removal of phosphate) need energy

What is the function of enzymes?

speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy

What are cofactors?

nonprotein enzyme helpers

What are coenzymes?

organic molecules derived from vitamins that function in the transfer of a chemical group

What is an noncompetitive inhibitor?

Binding at an allosteric site alters the shape of the active site so that substrate cannot bind

What is a competitive inhibitor?

a molecule that competes with the substrate to bind in the active site of an enzyme.

Explain endergonic reactions.

Endergonic reactions is when energy is absorbed and the reaction is not spontaneous. Change of free energy is positive.