Rise of Nazism ~ Core Notes 1

Germany lesson 1 - intoduction

First Reich

Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) = loose confederation of mainly German states ruled over by Holy Roman Emperor. For much of history of Holy Roman Empire, emperor also ruler of Austria.

German confederation

(1815-66): loose political association of 39 different states replacing collapsed Holy Roman Empire. 

Second Reich

(Kaiser Reich, 1871-1918). Authoritarian monarchical regime. Three Kaisers during Second Reich: Wilhelm I, Frederick and Wilhelm II. 

Weimar Republic

(1918-33): Democratic republic

Third Reich

(1933-45): Nazi dictatorship under Hitler

Occupation and division of Germany

(1945-1990): Military occupation by Allies leading to division of Germany into 2 separate states; East Germany (German Democratic Republic) and West Germany (German Federal Republic) 

Reunification of Germany

(1990-Present): Fall of Berlin Wall 1989 leads to unification of west and East Germany

Before 1871, Germany consisted of number of separate states of varying sizes. 

In 1871, largest German state, Prussia, brought most of the German states together into new German **Reich** (Empire) dominated by Prussia.  

For some time before this, many German-speaking people had wanted separate states to unite together to form strong…

…united independent German nation-state including all Germans = German nationalists

most nationalists also liberal…

…envisaged unification of Germany achieved by German people themselves, through elections and popular consent.

Unification didn’t happen this way…

…instead military victories of Prussian Army in wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1870-1)

THEREFORE, dilemma for German nationalists

…new German Reich not exactly the one they wanted. Didn’t include Austria and ruled by Prussian **Kaiser,** not govt. elected by people. BUT Reich included most Germans and gave sense of national pride

Otto von Bismarck

Minister-President of Prussia and then Chancellor of Imperial Germany. Worked closely with Kaiser Wilhelm I and politically dominated German and European affairs until forced resignation by Kaiser Wilhelm II. 

Bismarck

Prussian aristocrat and sought to protect power of Prussia and elites by terms of new German constitution.

King of Prussia

Kaiser of Germany, embracing 25 other different states over which he held great authority as a right

Position of chancellor

independent of the Reichstag – he and his ministers solely responsible to Kaiser

Democratic element

**Reichstag elected by universal male suffrage (elected lower house of German govt., where every male over age of 25 had right to vote).** But Reichstag had little real power

German army accountable only to Kaiser and swore allegiance to him and not govt…

…Deliberately excluded Austria

Bismarckian era

political system = functional, as chancellor and Kaiser share same political outlook

Kaiser Wilhelm II

autocrat and pursued more aggressive militaristic policies

This led to growing political tension within German Reich from 1871-1918,

as Reichstag became focus for opposition parties challenging role of Kaiser

German economy grew rapidly after 1871

Germany became one of the most powerful states within Europe – a leading industrial nation by 1900

Had completed what economic historians describe as ‘take-off’ in sustained growth in…

…coal, iron, heavy engineering and textiles well established and increased production.

By 1914, Germany = continental Europe’s industrial power and competing with Britain for supremacy

Already exceeded Britain’s level of iron production and nearly caught up with coal production. Steel production increased by almost 90% in this period. German output of steel = double Britain

German economic expansion not just built on ‘old industries’ – ‘second industrial revolution’ of new industries

e.g. electrics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and mechanical engineering. Daimler and Diesel cars and AEG and Siemens huge electrical businesses

Well-developed transport infrastructure of trains and trams, advanced banking system and…

…population well educated in technical skills

Industrialization transformed society

this lead to population growing dramatically; by 1910 Germany urbanized rather than agricultural. 

60% of Germans lived in towns

Berlin was largest city with 2 million inhabitants, but Munich, Leipzig, Hamburg, Dresden, Cologne and Breslau all exceeded half a million.

population well educated in technical skills. had rapid growth, but…

this lead to problems of overcrowding and homelessness.

Unemployment not major problem but most workers had poor standard of living

Created CLASS DIVIDE AND INCREASED TENSIONS, against the emergence of wealthy middle class and increasingly discontented working class

Many of Germany’s leading industrialists saw political stability as best guarantee of future prosperity,

So they formed alliance with aristocratic landowners **(Junkers)** to support Kaiser’s rule, concerned about increasing power of socialism

As consequence of forming an alliance with the Junkers

Workers formed trade unions (massive upsurge in membership) to campaign for higher wages and better conditions

By 1912, SPD, political representatives of trade unions + working classes, was by far largest parliamentary party in Reichstag because…

They stood for socialism, but in practice had no political power. Junkers still saw them as major threat to established order

Workers increasingly voted in Reichstag elections for Social Democratic Party **(SPD),** campaigning for greater democracy and social change

However, SPD, the largest single party in Reichstag and Germany was increasingly divided – socially and politically

No political party genuinely national/broad-based, was so politically fragmented (multiple parties representing multiple interest groups)

created a growing sense of crisis in German political system and paralysis in Reichstag

Resulted in Germany becoming an increasingly rich but divided country by 1914

couldn’t disguise differences: Imperial Germany an entrenched autocracy with eccentric Kaiser supported by dominant elites v signs of emerging parliamentary democracy with liberal values

Wave of popular support for Kaiser’s declaration of war as…

…most Germans regarded country as victim of ‘encirclement’ by Allied Powers of Great Britain, France and Prussia

Outbreak of WW1 in August 1914 transformed political situation temporarily

Resulted in political truce between parties in Reichstag, with even normally anti-war SPD voting in favour of war budget

As long as German forces were perceived successful & German civilians didn’t experience undue hardship, support for Kaiser and war effort remained high

However failure of quick military victory increased pressure for ‘total war’ 

by winter of 1916-7, severe food shortages + rapidly rising food prices damaged civilian morale, which led to…

Mounting crisis in Germany led Kaiser Wilhelm II to giving more political power to top military leaders, particularly **General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg.** Essentially making the country a military dictatorship

Von Hindenburg; aristocratic landowner, military leader

Became hero after defeating large Russian army at battle of Tannenberg 1915. Became chief of general staff 1916. After Germany’s defeat, Hindenburg shifted blame for humiliation (dolchstoss) onto politicians who took power after abdication of Kaiser

Ludendorff; Military Leader, key figure in German victory against Russian armies

In 1916 joined Hindenburg in engineering overthrow of Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, and became member of military committee which effectively ruled Germany until end of war. Reactionary in his politics and implacable opponent of New Republic established after abdication of Kaiser in November 1918.

Entrance of USA in the war, adding to allied forces in 1917…

applied further pressure on Germany

Defeat of Russia by German forces in 1918 freed German soldiers from the Eastern Front,

which allowed for forces to be re-directed in the battle against Western forces

Western Front: Battlegrounds of Belgium and northern France (Britain +France vs Germany) 

Eastern Front: Russia vs Germany and Austria-Hungary 

By Nov 1918 German forces in retreat along length of Western Front + at same time main ally Austria-Hungary defeated on other fronts.

• Facing certain defeat, Germany’s military leaders advised govt. to start peace talks with Allied powers.

• Military defeat a profound shock for Germany’s leaders and its people à led to end of Kaiser’s rule and establishment of democratic form of govt.

Right wing Germany

Left wing Germany

• Divisions between those who wanted to make democratic system work (e.g. SPD) and those who wanted communist revolution.

• W.R. faced many challenges but survived most à couldn’t survive erosion of support after 1929 economic crisis and undermining of powerful political and military figures with no commitment to democracy.