AP Psychology Unit 4

Attribution

how people explain behavior and mental processes of themselves and others

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits (qualities)

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment/external circumstances

explanatory style

how people explain good/bad events in their lives and in the lives of others

optimistic explanatory styles

linked to ↑ persistence, ↑ physical & mental health, ↑ academic & professional performance, & ↓ stress levels

pessimistic explanatory styles

linked to feelings of helplessness, ↓ achievement, depression, anxiety, and ↑ susceptibility to stress-related illnesses. Pessimists often give up more quickly when facing adversity, believing that their efforts are futile.

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overemphasize internal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior

- only applies when explaining other people's behavior

actor-observer bias

tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors while attributing others' behavior to dispositional factors

- explaining our own behavior vs how we explain others

self-serving bias

tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself but attribute negative outcomes to external factors

mere exposure effect

people are exposed to a stimulus repeatedly over time, which causes them to like the stimulus more due to familiarity

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

social comparison

people evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other members of society

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

cognitive load

mental effort needed for a task

implicit attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

in-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

out-group homogeneity bias

our tendency to see out-group members as being pretty much all alike

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ethnocentricism

evaluation of other cultures according to the standards and customs of one's own culture

belief perseverance

sticking to a belief despite contradicting evidence

confirmation bias

actively seeking and favoring supporting evidence

cognitive dissonance

a persons actions or attitudes are in conflict -> a person experiences mental discomfort by this conflict -> to reduce discomfort, person engages in rationalization or changes actions

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

social influence theory

proposes that social pressure to behave or think in certain ways can be normative or informational

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

occurs when people conform because they believe others have more accurate information

persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

central route to persuasion

relies on logic and reasoning, therefore requiring people to actively think about the message and evaluate its arguments

peripheral route to persuasion

relies on superficial cues or emotional appeal rather than the content itself

halo effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic (positive)

horn effect

attributing a variety of negative qualities to those you dislike

foot-in-the-door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment

door-in-the-face technique

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

asch's line experiment

12 wrong answers: 5% always conformed, 70% conformed some of the time, 25% remained completely independent

- focused on conformity

zimbardo's prison experiment

-A group of Stanford students were assigned to either play the role of prison guard or prisoner.

-All were dressed in uniforms, and the prisoners were assigned numbers. The prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment.

-The students took to their assigned roles perhaps too well, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners.

stanley's miligram obedience study

tested how far people would go in delivering painful shocks to a peer when instructed by an authority figure

individualism

self > group

collectivism

self < group

multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

groupthink

a group decision that prioritizes agreement and harmony over thinking critically or considering different viewpoints

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

social loafing

the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

includes: feelings of anonymity, physiological arousal, group size

Social inhibition

The tendency to perform complex or difficult tasks more poorly in the presence of others

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

altruism

a concern for others; generosity

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

social debt

when a person receives help, kindness, etc. but doesn't reciprocate immediately -> person feels motivated to repay the favor directly or to someone else

social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

humanistic theory

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth (self-actualization)

trait theory

Emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among individuals.

social cognitive theory

Emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal setting and self-regulation.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality

Focus on the influences of early childhood

Emphasis on unconscious motives/conflicts

Primary focus on sexual and aggressive urges

- id, ego, superego

id

entirely unconscious, operating on pleasure principle, seeking immediate satisfaction of sexual and aggressive drives

ego

mostly conscious, develops in early childhood, operates on reality principle, mediates the id/superego

superego

present in consciousness and unconsciousness, develops in early childhood and reflects norms, focus on how we should behave

freudian slip

a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion

unconscious sexual and aggressive urges are let out through...

dreams, ego defense mechanisms, anxiety, freudian slips, and jokes

carl rogers

created unconditional/conditional positive regard

maslow's hierarchy of needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

conditions of worth

the conditions a person must meet in order to regard himself or herself positively

psychodynamic theory

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

incongruent/congruent

self image is different/similar to the ideal self

self-actualization is easy/hard

happiness is achieved through most congruence

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

made by Gordon Allport

five-factor model

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

openness

high score: creative, artistic, curious, imaginative, noncomforming

low score: conventional, down-to-earth, uncreative

conscientiousness

high score: organized, reliable, neat, and ambitious

low score: unreliable, lazy, careless, negligent, and spontaneous

extraversion

high score: talkative, optimistic, sociable, affectionate

low score: reserved, comfortable being alone, stays in the background

agreeableness

high score: good-natured, trusting, helpful

low score: rude, uncooperative, irritable, aggressive, competitive

neuroticism

high score: worrying, insecure, anxious, temperamental

low score: calm, secure, relaxed, stable

hans eysenck theory of personality

(1) psychoticism (2) extroversion (3) neuroticism

psychoticism

how rebellious against the system or wild and reckless a person is

motivation

the biological, emotional, cognitive or social forces that activate & direct behavior

instincts

innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in response to certain stimuli

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

sensation-seeking theory

proposes that one's level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation

experience seeking

desire for new experiences through the mind, travel, art, music, or non-conventional lifestyles.

thrill/adventure seeking

pursuit of physical excitement and adrenaline-inducing activities

disinhibition

tendency to engage in impulsive, uninhibited social behaviors, often in the context of parties, drinking, or other high-energy social settings

boredom susceptibility

intolerance for repetitive experience

yerkes-dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation