TCH210 Final

Cohort Effect

an effect upon development whose cause is specific to the particular time in which the cohort grew up.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that does not receive the special treatment in order to provide a comparison group.

correlation coefficient

a statistic that measures the relationship between two variables

Cross Sectional Research Design

data are collected at one point in time from two or more age groups to investigate age trends.

Cultural Capital

knowledge and social relationships that allow people to reap benefits within their culture.

Qualitative Research

nonquantitative research characterized by the researcher being the instrument of data collection (rather than a test or questionnaire). May involve observations and interviews as data.

Reliability

consistency of a test or measurement.

Risk Factor

A variable associated with negative child outcomes

Resilience

Positive development despite adversity or risk

Socioeconomic Statur

categorization based on parental education, income, and occupational status; often simplified as low, middle, and upper class.

Theory

an organized group of concepts or principles used to explain a particular aspect of human development.

Validity

the extent to which a measurement assesses what it is supposed to measure for a specific purpose.

Adverse Childhood Experience

early toxic experience resulting in prolonged and intense stress, which leaves a mark on long-term brain architecture and well-being.

Cortisol

A hormone that the body generates as a response to stress

Neurotransmitter

a chemical that allows neurons to communicate across synapses

Puberty

physical changes that occur as children move into adulthood, including development of primary and secondary sex characteristics and capacity for reproduction.

Sensitive period

a biologically determined time period, typically early in life, in which a child readily develops specific abilities. Change is less likely before or after the sensitive period.

Synapse

a junction where neurons communicate with each other, or with other kinds of cells

A not B error

children observe an object being moved from hiding place A to hiding place B, but they search in hiding place A. Typical of the sensorimotor stage.

Accomodation

the process by which children modify existing mental structures or schemes in order to adapt to new experience, according to Piaget.

Animism

attribution of lifelike qualities, like intention, to nonliving, inanimate objects.

Assimilation

the process by which children incorporate experience into existing mental structures or schemes, according to Piaget.

Behavior Modification

operant conditioning used to change human behavior, frequently applied in special education classrooms. Token economies may be used for reinforcement.

Behaviorism

the scientific study of overt observable behavior

Classical Conditioning

a form of conditioning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that causes an involuntary response until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and also causes the response.

Cognition

mental processes like thinking, planning, reasoning, and remembering

Concrete operational stage

children are able to decenter and think logically about concrete objects and experience. Roughly ages 7 to 11.

Conditioning

learning, or creating conditions conducive to learning.

Conservation

understanding that the properties of objects like mass, volume, and number do not change just because the objects' appearance changes.

Constructivist

one who believes that knowledge acquisition is a process of construction rather than duplication (creating a mental copy of what is observed).

continuous reinforcement

reinforcement occurs after every correct response.

Cultural Tools

concrete objects and symbolic tools that allow members of a culture to think, build, record, problem solve, and communicate.

Direct Instruction

a didactic form of instruction largely based on operant conditioning.

Egocentric

the tendency to see the world from your own point of view while failing to see other people's points of view.

equilibirum

a state of cognitive balance or cognitive comfort.

Extinction (classical conditioning)

the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly not paired until the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

the elimination or decline in response caused by stopping reinforcement.

Formal Operational Stage

children are able to think abstractly about hypothetical events and systematically test hypotheses; roughly age 12 to adulthood.

guided participation

a novice learns through an expert's scaffolding.

intermittent reinforcement

reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses.

negative reinforcement

removal of an aversive stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This is not punishment.

Object Permanence

the knowledge that objects that are out of view continue to exist.

operant conditioning

voluntary behavior is conditioned through its consequences.

positive reinforcement

presentation of a consequence that increases the probability of a response.

Preoperational stage

children are able to use symbolic thought, but unable to think logically, particularly to conserve or decenter. Roughly ages 2 to 7.

Private speech

talking to oneself out loud, partially out loud, or silently in one's mind to help regulate one's own behavior or solve problems.

punishment

consequences that reduce the probability of a response.

reinforcer

a consequence that increases the probability of a response.

scaffolding

a more competent person helps a child master new skills by breaking the tasks or subskills into small units and guiding performance to a higher level.

scheme

a cognitive structure or piece of understanding constructed through experience.

self efficacy

belief that you have the capability to perform a specific task.

Social Constructivism

the view that knowledge is not poured into learners' brains, but that knowledge is constructed through social interaction.

Sociocultural theory

a theory of how children learn, largely based on Vygotsky's writings, that emphasizes social interaction, historical context, and culture.

ZPD

the distance between what learners can do independently and what they can do with the assistance of a competent other.

attachment

a deep and enduring affectionate bond that connects one person to another across time and space.

attachment hierarchy

the vertical organization of primary and secondary attachment figures for a specific child, with a preferred attachment figure at the top.

Avoidant attachment

a form of insecure attachment characterized by anxiety, emotional distancing, rejection, and anger.

goodness of fit

degree of match between temperament and environmental demands, values, or expectations.

internal working models

memories and expectations of the self and others that influence whether children approach or avoid others, with either positive or hostile emotions.

personality traits

the tendency to behave, think, and feel in certain consistent ways. Five traits that account for much of the variation in personality are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

personality types

clusters of personality traits that tend to occur together. The most commonly identified in children are resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled types.

resilient

a personality type characterized by very high levels of openness and conscientiousness, above average levels of extraversion and agreeableness, and very low levels of neuroticism.

resistant attachment

a form of insecure attachment characterized by exaggerated emotions, clinginess, and intense attachment behaviors.

secure attachment

a form of attachment characterized by feelings of security, open communication, and mutual delight.

strange situation procedure

a 22-minute laboratory task designed to test quality of attachment in which children under age 6 are stressed by maternal separation and stranger presence.

temperament

individual differences in reactivity (in emotions, motor activity, or attention) and the ability to control this reactivity.

authoritarian parenting style

parents are high on control but low on acceptance. They discourage verbal give-and-take, value their authority, and tend to be power assertive.

authoritative parenting style

parents are high on control, acceptance, and autonomy support. They maintain authority and enforce rules, but are responsive to their children.

classroom management

all aspects of managing the classroom, including but not limited to, discipline.

delay of gratification

an aspect of self-control in which children delay what they desire right now in order to get something more desirable later.

indifferent parenting style

parents are low on both control and acceptance. They are not affectionate or responsive and have few rules. They are self- rather than child-centered. Also called neglectful or uninvolved

induction

a form of discipline in which the adult gives the child a reason for why behavior must change or a rule must be complied with.

power assertion

coercive form of discipline in which the adult controls the child's behavior by virtue of greater power or resources. It often includes an "or else" clause.

psychological control

a coercive form of discipline in which the adult attempts to control the child's behavior by inducing guilt or fear of loss of love and affirmation.

situational compliance

children comply with demands, but lack sincere commitment and require sustained control by the authority figure.

basic emotions

universal, innate emotions appearing in the first months of life (interest, joy, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear).

depression

a common internalizing disorder in which feelings of sadness are severe for at least 2 weeks or are milder but chronic.

emotion

a subjective reaction to an important event, involving physiological or observable behavioral change.

emotion regulation

the capacity to control the intensity and duration of emotions.

emotional competence

the ability to regulate your own emotions, and read others' emotions, so that you emerge from an emotional event having accomplished your goals.

emotional dissemblance

altering the expression of felt emotion by expressing no emotion or expressing a different emotion.

externalizing disorders

emotional disorders based on anger, characterized by aggression and other antisocial behaviors.

internalizing disorders

emotional disorders based on sadness or anxiety, characterized by withdrawal.

problem focused coping strategies

action-oriented strategies that involve trying to change the situation.

Social emotions

complex emotions that emerge later than basic emotions (shame, embarrassment, guilt, pride, and envy). Also called "self-conscious" or "moral" emotions.

social referencing

children read another's emotional expression to determine how they should respond in an ambiguous situation.

moral identity

the degree to which being a moral person is central to a person's self-identity.

moral judgement

reasoning about moral dilemmas that involve justice in a context where rules, laws, formal obligations, and authority are emphasized.

prosocial reasoning

reasoning about moral dilemmas in which one person's needs or desires conflict with another's, but in a context where laws, rules, or formal obligations are minimal.

social cognition

thought processes applied to the social domain.

theory of mind

the ability to infer mental states in others, such as beliefs, desires, knowledge, and intentions. Also called "people reading."

clique

a tightly knit group of about 2 to 10 friends, usually of the same sex and same age.

controversial children

children who are liked by many and also disliked by many peers. They have high social impact.

Homophily

the tendency to prefer and bond with similar others.

neglected children

children who are neither liked nor disliked by many peers. They have low social impact.

peer pressure

friends exert pressure on each other to conform to group norms. It is typically positive, but can be negative.

peer status

a measure of how accepted children are in a peer group.

physical play

: play in which children move for the joy of movement, such as climbing, running, or chasing.

play

behavior that has no immediate function and is pleasurable, spontaneous, flexible, and internally controlled.

reciprocated friendship

both children nominate each other as a friend.