Major Branches of Earth Science and the Universe + Rocks and Minerals + Land Forms

Geology

Studies the Earth's materials and aim to understand the process that occur below and on its surface.

Physical Geology

Studies the Earth's materials and aim to understand the process that occur below and on its surface.

Histological Geology

Aims to understand the origin of Earth and the development of the planet through its history.

Meteorology

Study of the atmosphere and the processes that produce weather and climate.

Oceanography

Scientific study of the ocean, including its physical properties, sea floor topography, chemical composition, ecosystems, coastal processes, and marine life.

Astronomy

The study of the universe includes celestial objects such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies.

Earth System

Runs on energy from the sun and Earth's internal heat and has interconnected cycles that affect each other.

Atmosphere

The layer of gases surrounding Earth, which includes oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases.

Hydrosphere

All the water on Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and ice.

Geosphere

The solid part of Earth, consisting of rocks, minerals, and the land itself.

Biosphere

All living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals, and humans, as well as the ecosystems they form.

Hypothesis

Is constructed as a tentative explanation, based on facts.

Theory

Elevated from a hypothesis and becomes used/accepted.

Big Bang Theory

The most accepted theory of the Origin of the Universe, suggesting that the universe began from a single, extremely hot, and dense point around 13.8 billion years ago.

Cosmology

The study of the universe; its origin, structure, and behavior.

Cosmological Redshift

Galaxies moving away from shifted to longer (redder) wavelengths.

Edwin Hubble

Discovered that most galaxies are moving away from us and that their speed is proportional to their distance.

George Lemaître

Proponent of the Big Bang Theory and the hypothesis of the primeval atom or cosmic egg.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

Left over radiation from the Big Bang; very cold 2.725k.

Big Bang Age

How old is our universe? = 13.8 billion years.

Singularity Epoch

All matter was condensed into a single point. All fundamental forces are unified.

Grand Unification

Those fundamental forces are one; Gravity separates after that, formations of elementary particles (quarks, electrons, neutrinos).

Fundamental Forces

Gravity, Electromagnetism, Strong nuclear force, Weak nuclear force.

Inflationary Epoch

Extremely rapid exponential expansion occurring from 10^36 to 10^-32 seconds.

Quark Soup

Liquid-like material formed out of quarks and gluons, the most basic known building blocks of matter, existing from 10^-32 to 1 second.

Nucleosynthesis

Protons and neutrons combine through nuclear fusion to form hydrogen, helium, and lithium, occurring from 3 to 20 minutes after the Big Bang.

Recombination

The universe cooled enough for hydrogen and helium to form neutral atoms, allowing light to travel freely and creating the CMBR, occurring from 240,000 to 300,000 years.

Dark Age

This period has NO stars at all, lasting from 300,000 to 150 million years.

Reionization

Quasars formed which emitted intense radiation, occurring from 240,000 to 300,000 years.

Star and Galaxy Formation

Solar System Formation occurred from 300 to 500 million years.

Big Crunch

The expansion of the universe reverses, and the universe collapses.

Open Universe

If the density of the universe is less than the critical value, about one atom for every cubic meter, it will continue to expand forever.

Stellar Evolution

Nebula → Protostar → main-sequence star → red giant stage → variable stage → planetary nebula stage → white dwarf stage (SuperNova and White Dwarf) → Neutron star/Black hole → to black dwarf.

Protostar Stage

Is not yet a star, because it's not yet HOT; not hot enough to engage in nuclear fusion.

Main Sequence Star

Stars spend 90% of their life as a hydrogen-burning main sequence star.

Stable Main Sequence Star

Outward pressure balances the inward gravitational force; the sun is expected to remain a stable main sequence star for another 5 billion years.

Red Giant Stage

Usable hydrogen in the star's interior is consumed, leaving a helium rich core.

Core Collapse

The core contracts since it no longer has gas pressure necessary to support against inward force of gravity.

Variable Stage

Eventually the star's gravitational force stops outward expansion and the two opposing forces, gravity and gas pressure, again achieve balance.

Variable Stars

Variable stars alternately expand and contract, and never reach equilibrium.

Burnout and Death

Stars exhaust their usable nuclear fuel and collapse in response to their immense gravity.

White Dwarf

For low-mass stars, they collapse into white dwarfs.

Stellar Remnants

After low and medium mass stars consume their remaining fuel, gravity causes them to collapse into white dwarfs.

Neutron Stars

Remnants of explosive supernova events.

Black Holes

Densest object in the universe with immense surface gravity, even light cannot escape it.

Planetary Nebulae

Formed from medium-mass stars.

Supernova

Formed from massive stars.

Nebular Hypothesis

Formation of the Earth's Layers and the Atmosphere.

Nebular Theory

Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust (solar nebula).

Protosun

The nebula collapsed under gravity to form a protosun at the center.

Cooling Process

Cooling led to rocky and metallic materials condensing into solid particles.

Planetesimals

Repeated collisions of dust particles formed planetesimals which eventually became planets.

Theia

A Mars-sized body that collided with proto-Earth, resulting in debris that formed the Moon.

Terrestrial Planets

Inner planets that are rocky and made of high-melting materials.

Jovian Planets

Outer planets that are gas and ice-rich, larger due to cold temperatures.

Formation of Earth's Layers

Larger planetesimals merged to form proto-Earth, leading to intense heating and melting of iron and nickel.

Primitive Atmosphere

Formed from volcanic eruptions releasing gases such as water vapor, CO₂, and sulfur dioxide.

Cooling of Earth

Cooling allowed water vapor to condense, leading to the formation of oceans.

Earth's Materials

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with crystalline structures and chemical formulas.

Luster

How light reflects off a mineral's surface (metallic, submetallic, nonmetallic).

Light Transmission

Opaque - no light passes through; Translucent - light passes, but no image; Transparent - light and image pass through.

Streak

Color of mineral in powdered form.

Crystal Shape

Form of a crystal (bladed, prismatic).

Brittle

Shatters easily

Malleable

Hammered into shapes

Hardness

Resistance to scratching (Moh's scale)

Cleavage

Tendency to break along planes of weakness

Melting

Rocks melt → magma

Cooling and Crystallization

Magma cools → igneous rock

Weathering, Erosion, Deposition

Rocks broken down → transported → deposited

Lithification

Sediments compressed → sedimentary rocks

Metamorphism

Heat and pressure → metamorphic rocks

Uplift

Rocks exposed to surface → starts cycle again

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Small crystals, rapid cooling (ex: basalt, pumice)

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Large crystals, slow cooling (ex: granite, gabbro)

Felsic

Light-colored, rich in silica

Mafic

Dark-colored, rich in magnesium and iron

Intermediate

Mix of felsic and mafic

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

Formed from weathered rock fragments (ex: sandstone, shale)

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Formed from precipitation of dissolved minerals (ex: evaporites)

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Formed from organic material (ex: coal, chalk)

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Layered texture due to directed pressure (ex: slate)

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

No layers; uniform texture (ex: marble)

Agents of Metamorphism

Heat - triggers recrystallization, Stress - causes deformation, Chemically active fluids - enhance recrystallization

Endogenic Processes

Driven by geothermal energy (internal)

Tectonic Activity

Includes convergent, divergent, and transform plate movements

Volcanic Activity

Includes intrusive and extrusive processes

Weathering

Breakdown of rocks

Mechanical Weathering

Physical breakdown (ex: frost wedging)

Chemical Weathering

Breakdown by chemical reactions (ex: oxidation)

Erosion

Transport of sediments by wind, water, gravity

Deposition

Settling of sediments in new locations

Mass Wasting

Downslope movement of rocks/soil due to gravity

Creep

Slow movement

Slide

Rapid movement

Flow

Torrents of water carrying debris

Fall

Freefall of rock fragments

Landforms

Natural feature of the earth's surface that has a distinct shape and structure

Mountains

Uplifted land, steep slopes and small summit, has to be 1000ft tall and formed for 1M years

Orogenesis

Process of mountain formation, typically as a result of collision and interaction of tectonic plates