Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: History, Processes, and Attention

What are the roots of Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive Psychology has roots in philosophy and empirical research.

What does the cognitive approach focus on?

It focuses on the flow of information, representation of knowledge, and the limits of cognitive processing.

What is the significance of the scientific method in psychology?

The scientific method was applied to psychology in the 1600s, leading to experiments in astronomy and the human body.

Who was Plato and what was his contribution to cognitive psychology?

Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who theorized that knowledge structures exist in the mind and we perceive only images of the real world.

What is Aristotle's view on knowledge?

Aristotle believed the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) and that knowledge is acquired through experience and associations.

What is empiricism in the context of cognitive psychology?

Empiricism is the philosophical position that observation-derived data is the basis for science.

What did Wundt contribute to cognitive psychology?

Wundt established psychology as the study of conscious processes and immediate experiences, founding cognitive psychology as a science.

What is structuralism in psychology?

Structuralism is the study of the structure of consciousness, focusing on immediate experiences and sensations.

What are the limitations of introspection as a method?

Introspection is limited because it relies on subjective reports and cannot be used for many mental processes.

What is functionalism in psychology?

Functionalism studies the functions of consciousness rather than its structure, focusing on how the mind adapts.

Who was Ebbinghaus and what did he study?

Ebbinghaus studied learning through associations, particularly using nonsense syllables to examine memory.

What is the significance of verbal learning in cognitive psychology?

Verbal learning examines how people learn verbal material and the connections that influence memory.

What is behaviorism and its main focus?

Behaviorism studies observable behavior and emphasizes experience as the primary factor in learning.

What is the S-R approach in behaviorism?

The S-R (Stimulus-Response) approach focuses on observable stimuli and responses, excluding internal mental processes.

What is the Gestalt approach in cognitive psychology?

The Gestalt approach studies principles of organization in perception, emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

What is the figure-ground principle in Gestalt psychology?

The figure-ground principle refers to how we distinguish an object (figure) from its background (ground) in perception.

What does the principle of continuity of form suggest?

It suggests that elements following a continuous path are perceived as more related than disconnected ones.

How do innate processes influence perception?

Innate processes shape how we perceive and process information, forming the core of cognitive psychology.

What is the role of associations in knowledge according to associationism?

Associationism posits that knowledge is learned through associations between sensations, images, and ideas.

What is the importance of attentional limits in cognitive psychology?

Attentional limits refer to the constraints on our ability to process information, impacting memory and learning.

What is the relationship between knowledge and perception?

Knowledge influences perceptions and learning, actively shaping how we interpret experiences.

What did John Stuart Mill contribute to cognitive psychology?

John Stuart Mill followed Aristotle's tradition, emphasizing knowledge as associations and the process of mapping connections.

What is the significance of immediate and hidden memory in functionalism?

Immediate memory is active and aware, while hidden memory is passive and long-term, both crucial for understanding cognition.

What challenges did Ebbinghaus face in studying memory?

Ebbinghaus faced challenges with meaningful words affecting learning, leading him to use nonsense syllables to isolate factors.

What is the organization of behavior according to D.O. Hebb?

Hebb linked perception, learning, and physiology into a single conceptual framework.

What are neural networks in Hebb's theory?

Neural networks consist of nodes representing neurons, connected to create networks that learn and organize information.

What are Hebb's assemblies?

Assemblies are groups of neurons formed through associations that represent perception, actions, and thoughts.

What is the focus of cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology focuses on internal mental processes such as attention, imagery, and conceptualization.

What is the significance of the year 1967 in cognitive psychology?

The term 'cognitive psychology' began to be used in 1967.

What is the role of communication theory in cognitive psychology?

Communication theory, as proposed by Broadbent, examines how information flows and is coded in the mind.

What is the difference between sensory memory, short-term store, and long-term store?

Sensory memory registers environmental input, short-term store temporarily holds information, and long-term store retains information over extended periods.

What is the Atkinson & Shiffrin model?

The Atkinson & Shiffrin model describes three stores of memory: sensory memory, short-term store, and long-term store.

What does the term 'dissociation' refer to in cognitive psychology?

Dissociation refers to a disruption in one component of mental functioning without impairing another component.

What are the basic building blocks of cognition?

Neurons are the basic building blocks of cognition, responsible for receiving and transmitting neural impulses.

How many neurons are estimated to be in the human brain?

There are approximately 100 billion neurons in the human brain.

What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?

Dendrites gather neural impulses from other neurons into the current neuron.

What is the role of the soma in a neuron?

The soma, or cell body, regulates bioactivity and contains the nucleus and DNA.

What is the function of the axon in a neuron?

The axon transmits signals from the dendrites through to the axonal terminals.

What is the myelin sheath?

The myelin sheath is an insulator for the axon that speeds up neural transmission.

What is the significance of Henry Molaison (H.M.) in cognitive psychology?

H.M. was a key case study that contributed to understanding memory systems and the distinction between short-term and long-term memory.

What is the importance of reaction time (RT) in cognitive psychology?

Reaction time is measured to assess the speed of cognitive processes, with different types like simple RT and choice RT.

What does 'masking' refer to in sensory memory?

Masking refers to the phenomenon where one stimulus interferes with the perception of another stimulus.

What is the difference between short-term memory (STS) and long-term memory (LTM)?

Short-term memory holds information temporarily, while long-term memory retains information over a longer duration.

What is the significance of behavioral and cognitive measures in cognitive neuroscience?

These measures help in localizing functions in the brain and understanding cognitive processes.

What is the relationship between cognitive psychology and philosophy?

Cognitive psychology has roots in philosophy and is influenced by empirical research.

What is the role of brain imaging techniques in cognitive neuroscience?

Brain imaging techniques, such as MRI and EEG, measure cognitive functions and brain activity.

What is the concept of finite causation in cognitive research?

Finite causation refers to the idea that there are a limited number of factors that can influence mental processes.

What does it mean that humans are active information processors?

It means that humans actively engage in processing information rather than passively receiving it.

What are most cortical neurons characterized by?

Most cortical neurons are unmyelinated, forming grey matter in the brain.

What is an action potential?

An action potential is the change in electrical charge of a neuron from negative to positive, propagating from the dendrites down the axon.

What does the All or None Principle state?

The All or None Principle states that all action potentials are the same; a neuron either fires or it does not.

What is a synapse?

A synapse is the region where the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another come together, typically separated by a small gap.

What is the synaptic cleft?

The synaptic cleft is the small gap where neurotransmitters are released between two neurons.

What is convergence in neural communication?

Convergence refers to the phenomenon where many neurons may converge onto a single neuron, leading to converging activation.

What are neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released into the synapses that activate or inhibit post-synaptic neurons.

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process that strengthens the connections between neurons, making it easier for them to fire together in the future.

What is consolidation in the context of neural connections?

Consolidation refers to long-term changes in neural connections that occur over days, weeks, months, or years.

What is the thalamus's role in the brain?

The thalamus acts as the gateway to the cortex, with almost all messages passing through it.

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

The corpus callosum is the primary bridge for messages to cross between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

What is the role of the hippocampus?

The hippocampus is involved in storing new information in memory and is often referred to as the memory center.

What is the amygdala's function?

The amygdala is important for processing emotional qualities of information and is involved in affective processing.

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

The four lobes are the frontal lobe (executive functions), parietal lobe (attention), occipital lobe (vision), and temporal lobe (language).

What does contralaterality refer to in brain function?

Contralaterality refers to the control of one side of the body being localized in the opposite side of the cerebral hemisphere.

What are the primary functions of the left hemisphere of the brain?

The left hemisphere is specialized for language sounds, letters, words, speech, reading, writing, arithmetic, verbal memory, and complex voluntary movement.

What are the primary functions of the right hemisphere of the brain?

The right hemisphere is specialized for non-language sounds, geometric patterns, faces, nonverbal memory, prosody, narrative, inference, and spatial processes.

What is the sensory cortex responsible for?

The sensory cortex is responsible for processing sensory information throughout the body and is located within the parietal lobe.

What is the motor cortex's function?

The motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movements and is found in the frontal lobe.

What is computerized axial tomography (CT scan)?

CT scans are imaging techniques that use X-ray images to create slices of the brain for examination.

What does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provide?

MRI provides clearer pictures of the brain's structure and allows inspection of various slices.

What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)?

An EEG records the patterns of brain waves by attaching electrodes to the scalp.

What does positron emission tomography (PET) measure?

PET measures regions of the brain with heightened neural activity based on blood flow levels.

What is functional MRI (fMRI)?

fMRI is similar to PET but provides a more detailed image without using a radioactive isotope, measuring metabolic rates in specific brain areas.

What is perception?

The process of interpreting sensory information.

What initiates visual sensation and perception?

The retina, which contains rods and cones.

What are the main components of the retina?

Rods, cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.

What is the function of the optic nerve?

It transmits visual signals from the retina to the occipital lobe.

What is the fovea?

The highly sensitive area of the retina responsible for precise, focused vision.

How many rods and cones are in the human eye?

Approximately 120 million rods and 7 million cones.

What is the primary role of rods in vision?

To provide vision in low light conditions; they do not contribute to color vision.

What is sensory memory?

Also known as sensory registers, it is a brief neural activation that occurs in response to sensory stimuli.

What is the duration of visual sensory memory?

About 200ms to 500ms.

What is the Three-Store Model of memory proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin?

It includes sensory memory, short-term store, and long-term store.

What is visual persistence?

The apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration.

What technique did Sperling use to study visual sensory memory?

The partial report technique, which showed that capacity for visual sensory memory is very large.

What is masking in sensory memory?

The phenomenon where the perception of a target stimulus is reduced or erased by the presentation of another stimulus.

What are the two types of visual masks?

Energy masks (brightness) and pattern masks (information).

What is the difference between backward and forward masking?

Backward masking occurs when a target is followed by a mask, while forward masking occurs when a mask is presented before the target.

What is the implication of masking in sensory memory?

It allows for the erasure of information to cleanly code the next event into sensory memory.

What is the significance of the fovea in visual perception?

It contains the highest concentration of cones, allowing for detailed color vision.

What happens during a saccade?

The eyes move from one fixation point to another, during which no visual information is processed.

What is the role of bipolar cells in the retina?

They receive patterns of neural firing from rods and cones and transmit them to ganglion cells.

What is the visual cortex?

The area in the occipital lobe where visual information is processed.

How does information accumulate in sensory memory?

Information is encoded over time through multiple exposures to the stimulus.

What is the capacity of visual sensory memory according to Sperling's studies?

The capacity is very large, allowing for the selection of specific items based on location, color, and basic features.

What is the primary coding in sensory memory?

Information is coded in terms of primitive features, not semantic meaning.

What is the effect of time on sensory memory?

Information in sensory memory can decay over time, but it can also be erased through masking.

What is the relationship between visual fields and the brain's hemispheres?

Each eye processes different areas of the visual field, with information crossing over to the opposite hemisphere.

What is the capacity of sensory memory (SM)?

SM has a large capacity and accumulates information over time.

What is the purpose of the T-scope in sensory memory?

The T-scope flashes information to participants for a brief period of time, allowing 50 ms to process and encode information.

What is pattern recognition?

Pattern recognition is the process of identifying and matching stimuli to stored templates in memory.