KINE 474: Testing and Evaluation of Body Composition, Balance, Flexibility, and Mobility

A set of 100 vocabulary flashcards covering body composition assessment, anthropometry, skinfold procedures and formulas, balance evaluation, flexibility, and mobility testing based on Chapter 13.

Anthropometry

The science of measurement applied to the human body, generally including height, weight, and girths.

Chest Girth Measurement (Male)

Girth measurement taken at nipple level in males.

Chest Girth Measurement (Female)

Girth measurement taken at maximum circumference (above the breasts) in females.

Right Upper Arm Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the point of maximal circumference with the elbow fully extended, palm up, and arm abducted to parallel with the floor.

Right Forearm Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the point of maximal circumference with the elbow fully extended, palm up, and arm abducted to parallel with the floor.

Waist (Abdomen) Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the level of the umbilicus.

Hips (Buttocks) Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the maximal protrusion of the buttocks with the heels together.

Right Thigh Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the point of maximal circumference, usually just below the buttocks.

Right Calf Girth Measurement

Girth measurement taken at the point of maximal circumference between the knee and ankle.

BMI Paradox Example (Bodybuilder vs. Sedentary Man)

Demonstrates that both a bodybuilder ($5\%$ fat, BMR $2422\,\text{cal}$) and a sedentary man ($30\%$ fat, BMR $1882\,\text{cal}$) at $5'11"$ ($180.3\,\text{cm}$) and $220\,\text{lbs}$ ($99.7\,\text{kg}$) have an identical BMI of $30.7\,\text{kg/m}^2$ (classified as obese).

Body Composition

Relative proportions of fat and fat-free tissue in the human body.

Skinfold Measurement Skin Condition Standard

Skinfold measurements should be made on dry skin, before exercise, to ensure maximum validity and reliability. (pinky always up)

Skinfold Caliper Prong Placement

Placed perpendicular to the fold $0.5\,\text{inch}$ to $1\,\text{inch}$ (approximately $1\,\text{cm}$ to $2\,\text{cm}$) from the thumb and index finger.

Skinfold Caliper Measurement Reading Time

Read the dial on the caliper to the nearest $0.5\,\text{mm}$ between $1\,\text{second}$ and $2\,\text{seconds}$ after the grip on the caliper has been released.

Skinfold Measurement Retest Protocol

Obtain duplicate measures at each site and average to nearest $0.5\,\text{mm}$ if they do not differ by more than $10\%$ (or $1\,\text{mm}$ to $2\,\text{mm}$). Retest if difference exceeds threshold.

Skinfold Standard Error of Estimate (SEE)

The minimum SEE for population-specific skinfold equations is $\pm 3\%$ to $\pm 5\%$. Strength and conditioning professionals must report a range of percentages accounting for this error.

Male 3-Site Skinfold Combinations

Option 1: Chest, abdomen, thigh. Option 2: Chest, triceps, subscapular.

Female 3-Site Skinfold Combinations

Option 1: Triceps, suprailiac, thigh. Option 2: Triceps, suprailiac, abdominal.

7-Site Skinfold Sites

Chest, abdomen, thigh, triceps, suprailiac, midaxillary, subscapula.

Abdomen Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold; $2\,\text{cm}$ to the right side of the umbilicus.

Triceps Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold; on the posterior midline of the upper arm, halfway between the acromion and olecranon processes, with arm held freely to the side.

Biceps Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold; on the anterior aspect of the arm over the belly of the biceps muscle, $1\,\text{cm}$ above the line used to mark the triceps site.

Chest/Pectoral Skinfold Site Definition (Male)

Diagonal fold; one-half the distance between the anterior axillary line and the nipple.

Chest/Pectoral Skinfold Site Definition (Female)

Diagonal fold; one-third of the distance between the anterior axillary line and the nipple.

Medial Calf Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold; at the maximum circumference of the calf on the midline of its medial border.

Midaxillary Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold on the midaxillary line at the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum (or horizontal fold at xiphoid/sternal border).

Subscapular Skinfold Site Definition

Diagonal fold ($45$-degree angle); $1\,\text{cm}$ to $2\,\text{cm}$ below the inferior angle of the scapula.

Suprailiac Skinfold Site Definition

Diagonal fold; in line with the natural angle of the iliac crest taken in the anterior axillary line immediately superior to the iliac crest.

Thigh Skinfold Site Definition

Vertical fold; on the anterior midline of the thigh, midway between the proximal border of the patella and the inguinal crease (hip).

Side of Body for Skinfold Assessments

All skinfold measurements should be made on the right side of the body with the subject standing upright.

Skinfold Caliper Placement relative to Fold Base

Caliper should be placed directly on the skin surface, $1\,\text{cm}$ away from thumb and finger, perpendicular to skinfold, and halfway between crest and base of fold.

S7SKF

Sum of seven skinfolds in millimeters: chest + abdomen + triceps + subscapular + suprailiac + midaxilla + thigh.

S4SKF

Sum of four skinfolds in millimeters: triceps + anterior suprailiac + abdomen + thigh.

S3SKF

Sum of three skinfolds in millimeters (varies by population and gender combinations).

S2SKF

Sum of two skinfolds in millimeters: triceps + calf.

Slaughter et al. (103) S2SKF Equation (Boys)

$\%\text{BF} = 0.735(\text{S2SKF}) + 1.0$ for Black or White boys aged $6$\text{--}$17\,\text{years}$.

Slaughter et al. (103) S2SKF Equation (Girls)

$\%\text{BF} = 0.610(\text{S2SKF}) + 5.1$ for Black or White girls aged $6$\text{--}$17\,\text{years}$.

Sloan and Weir (104) Formula (Women Athletes)

Predicts body density for high school and college age female athletes using suprailiac and triceps skinfolds: $\text{Db (g/cc)} = 1.0764 - 0.000813(\text{suprailiac}) - 0.000883(\text{triceps})$.

Sloan and Weir (104) Formula (Men Athletes)

Predicts body density for high school and college age male athletes using thigh and subscapular skinfolds: $\text{Db (g/cc)} = 1.1043 - 0.001333(\text{thigh}) - 0.001313(\text{subscapular})$.

Evans et al. (28) Equation

Calculates percent body fat directly for male or female athletes aged $18$\text{--}$34\,\text{years}$ using S3SKF (triceps + abdomen + thigh): $\%\text{BF} = 8.997 + (\text{S3SKF}) - 6.343(\text{gender}) - 1.998(\text{race})$.

Jackson and Pollock (55) / Jackson et al. (57)

Reference authors for generalized 7-site, 4-site, and 3-site skinfold equations for calculating body density.

Men 7-Site Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for men's 7-site formula is $0.008\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.5\%$ fat.

Men 3-Site (Chest, Abdomen, Thigh) Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for men's chest/abdomen/thigh formula is $0.008\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.4\%$ fat.

Men 3-Site (Chest, Triceps, Subscapular) Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for men's chest/triceps/subscapular formula is $0.008\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.6\%$ fat.

Women 7-Site Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for women's 7-site formula is $0.008\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.8\%$ fat.

Women 3-Site (Triceps, Suprailiac, Thigh) Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for women's triceps/suprailiac/thigh formula is $0.009\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.9\%$ fat.

Women 3-Site (Triceps, Suprailiac, Abdominal) Skinfold SEE

Standard Error of Estimate for women's triceps/suprailiac/abdominal formula is $0.009\,\text{g/cc}$ body density or approximately $\sim 3.9\%$ fat.

Standard Conversion Formula for Percent Body Fat

$\%\text{BF} = \left[ \left( \frac{4.95}{\text{Body Density}} \right) - 4.50 \right] \times 100$.

Caucasian Male (18-59 yrs) Body Density Conversion Formula

$\%\text{BF} = \left( \frac{4.95}{\text{Db}} \right) - 4.50$ with fat-free body density (FFBd) of $1.100\,\text{g/cm}^3$.

African American Male (19-45 yrs) Body Density Conversion Formula

$\%\text{BF} = \left( \frac{4.86}{\text{Db}} \right) - 4.39$ with fat-free body density (FFBd) of $1.106\,\text{g/cm}^3$.

Anorexia Nervosa (Women 15-44 yrs) Body Density Conversion Formula

$\%\text{BF} = \left( \frac{4.96}{\text{Db}} \right) - 4.51$ with fat-free body density (FFBd) of $1.101\,\text{g/cm}^3$.

Obesity (17-62 yrs) Body Density Conversion Formula

$\%\text{BF} = \left( \frac{4.95}{\text{Db}} \right) - 4.50$ with fat-free body density (FFBd) of $1.100\,\text{g/cm}^3$.

Three Steps for Assessing Body Composition via Skinfolds

1. Gather skinfold data and age. 2. Calculate body density. 3. Calculate body fat percentage from body density.

Sample Calculation: Sum of Skinfolds (Male, 28 yrs)

Sum of averaged skinfolds across 7 sites equals $109.5\,\text{mm}$, resulting in a sum squared of $11990.25$.

Sample Calculation: Body Density Outcome

Plugging $109.5\,\text{mm}$ sum and age $28$ into male 7-site equation yields $\text{Body Density} = 1.06289196\,\text{g/cc}$.

Sample Calculation: Final Percent Body Fat Outcome

Plugging $\text{Body Density} = 1.06289196\,\text{g/cc}$ into conversion equation yields $15.7\%$ body fat.

Extremely Lean Classification Body Fat Range

Males: $<7\%$ body fat; Females: $<15\%$ body fat. Typical sports include contest bodybuilding, contest wrestling, gymnastics, and cross-country.

Very Lean Classification Body Fat Range

Males: $8\%$ to $10\%$ body fat; Females: $16\%$ to $18\%$ body fat. Typical sports include men's basketball and racquetball.

Leaner than Average Classification Body Fat Range

Males: $11\%$ to $13\%$ body fat; Females: $19\%$ to $20\%$ body fat. Typical sports include rowing, soccer, decathlon, and heptathlon.

Average Body Fat Classification Range for Athletes

Males: $14\%$ to $17\%$ body fat; Females: $21\%$ to $25\%$ body fat. Typical sports include baseball, canoeing, skiing, weightlifting, women's basketball, and football QBs/linebackers.

Fatter than Average Classification Body Fat Range

Males: $18\%$ to $22\%$ body fat; Females: $26\%$ to $30\%$ body fat. Typical sports include powerlifting, football linemen, and shot put.

Nieman (1995)

Source publication (78) providing descriptive percent body fat data for athletes across various sports.

Balance Definition

Ability to maintain static and dynamic equilibrium or ability to maintain the body's center of gravity over its base.

Stability Definition

Measure of the ability to return to a desired position following a disturbance to the system.

Static Standing Balance Tests

Balance assessment performed with eyes closed while standing unilaterally or bilaterally.

Biodex Balance System

Specialized balance testing equipment used to evaluate static and dynamic balance.

Fatigue Impact on Balance

Prior activity or training resulting in fatigue causes decreased proprioception, negatively affecting balance test results.

Balance Error Scoring System (BESS)

A balance assessment evaluating three stance positions held across firm and soft surfaces with eyes closed.

BESS Stance 1: Double-Leg Stance

Stance performed with feet together in double-leg standing.

BESS Stance 2: Single-Leg Stance

Stance performed on the non-dominant foot with contralateral leg in approximately $90^\circ$ of flexion.

BESS Stance 3: Tandem Stance

Stance performed with the dominant foot placed directly in front of the non-dominant foot.

BESS Testing Surface Conditions

Testing is conducted on both a firm surface and a soft surface.

BESS Stance Duration and Eye Position

Each stance condition is held for $20\,\text{seconds}$ with eyes closed and hands on hips.

BESS Error: Opening Eyes

Recorded as an error when an athlete opens their eyes during the $20\,\text{second}$ trial.

BESS Error: Lifting Hands from Hips

Recorded as an error when an athlete removes their hands from their hips during testing.

BESS Error: Touchdown of Non-Stance Foot

Recorded as an error when the non-stance foot touches the floor.

BESS Error: Stance Foot Movement

Recorded as an error when an athlete steps, hops, or moves the stance foot/feet.

BESS Error: Lifting Forefoot or Heel

Recorded as an error when the forefoot or heel lifts off the test surface.

BESS Error: Excessive Hip Movement

Recorded as an error when moving the hip into more than $30^\circ$ of hip flexion or abduction.

BESS Error: Time Out of Position Threshold

Recorded as an error when remaining out of the test position for more than $5\,\text{seconds}$.

Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT)

Dynamic balance test where athlete assumes a single leg stance in center of grid and reaches as far as possible in each direction.

SEBT Practice Trial Requirement

Athlete should be given a minimum of $4$ practice trials before testing.

SEBT Trial Averaging Protocol

Three trials are performed for each direction and averaged together.

SEBT Rest Period

$15\,\text{seconds}$ of rest provided between each reach.

SEBT Discard Criterion: Touch Quality

Trial is discarded if there is no touch on the line or a 'heavy' touch.

SEBT Discard Criterion: Stance Foot Movement

Trial is discarded if the stance foot lifts from the center of the grid.

SEBT Discard Criterion: Position Maintenance

Trial is discarded if the athlete is not able to maintain start and stop position for $1\,\text{second}$.

SEBT Anthropometric Influence

Limb length directly influences the Star Excursion Balance Test assessment results.

SEBT Sufficient Reach Direction Subset

Anterio-medial, medial, and posterior-medial reach positions may be sufficient for assessment.

Flexibility Definition

Range of motion around a joint; strictly joint-specific and muscle-specific rather than a general term.

Mobility Definition

Ability to move; integrates flexibility with balance, coordination, and strength/control.

Goniometry

A laboratory method of quantifying individual joint flexibility in terms of range of motion expressed in degrees.

Goniometer Structural Components

Tool including two arms (one fixed to proximal segment, one movable to distal segment) and a protractor centered on the joint's axis.

Sit and Reach Test Setup

Tape measure/stick on floor with a piece of tape across measuring stick at the $15\,\text{inch}$ mark; athlete straddles tape with $0\,\text{inch}$ mark toward body.

Sit and Reach Testing Procedure

Shoes removed, knees extended, heels at tape edge, reach forward slowly with both hands, best of $3$ trials recorded to nearest $0.25\,\text{inch}$ ($1\,\text{cm}$).

Sit and Reach Test Utility and Limitation

Used to assess low back and hamstring flexibility (better measure of hamstring flexibility); cannot generalize overall flexibility as it evaluates only hip flexion.

Overhead Squat Assessment Setup

Wooden dowel or PVC pipe held overhead with snatch grip and elbows extended, feet shoulder-width apart.

Overhead Squat Assessment Pass/Fail Criteria

Qualitative assessment evaluating ability to maintain dowel overhead, keep heels on floor, maintain neutral lumbar spine, and achieve depth (hip crease below top of knee) for minimum $5$ reps.

Functional Movement Screen (FMS) Structure

A series of $7$ movement tests and $3$ clearing assessments designed to identify deficiencies in mobility and stability.

FMS Scoring Scale Definitions

Scored $0$\text{--}$3$: $0$ = pain with movement; $1$ = unsatisfactory; $2$ = satisfactory; $3$ = optimal.