AP Psychology - Unit 0: Science Practices Key Terms Flashcards

An introduction to psychological science practices: research methods and data interpretation

Independent variables

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding variables

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

Dependent variables

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Random assignments

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Hypothesis

Testable predictions that specify which results would support the theory and which disconfirm it

Generalizability

How applicable research results are toward other peoples, settings and circumstances outside the original test group

Quantitative data

The research method that uses data sets and numbers to derive a conclusion

Qualitative data

The research method that uses narratives and personal experiences

Institutional review board

A research organization comprised of at least 5 people, with the purpose of enforcing ethical standards

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether or not to participate

Informed assent

A child's or non-competent person's agreement to take part in a study or treatment

Confidentiality

A requirement that psychologists keep private information shared from a client during therapy or research

Deception

The act, big or small, of encouraging others to believe information that is untrue

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Central tendency

A single value that describes the center position or typical point of a data set

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution. Adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution. Half the scores are above it, half the scores are below it

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Variation

A measure of how far apart data points lie from each other and from the center of a data set

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Protection from harm

A core ethical rule in which researchers must keep individuals safe from physical and mental damage

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data

Bimodal distribution

When there's two distinct peaks in a data distribution(modes)

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean scores

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

Positive skew

When the normal distribution curve leans toward the right because of a few positive extremes

Negative skew

When the normal distribution curve leans toward the left because of a few negative extremes

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Positive correlation

An increase in one variable in direct proportion to scores for another variable

Negative correlation

A decrease in one variable precisely as scores for the other variable rise

Correlation coefficient

Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 that demonstrate the link between data

Case study

An examination of one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Naturalistic observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Cultural norms

Shared behavioral expectations that shape one's thoughts and how one acts

Structured interviews

Interviews where participants answer the same questions in the same order

Likert scales

A rating given by participants containing their agreement with statements on a scale to provide the researcher with quantifiable data on the participants attitudes or opinion.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's knowledge, the likelihood of being correct, or abilities to perform tasks.

Falsifiability

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational definitions

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Peer review

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality and accuracy

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Sample

A group of individuals in a population that were selected to represent the population in the study

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

Representative sample

A smaller group of participants that accurately mirror the key traits and proportions of a larger target population

Random sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience sampling

Selecting certain samples based on their availability and/or ease of access

Representation of participants

Choosing a smaller group of people whose traits match the larger group

Experiment group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment - that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Effect sizes

The strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

Statistical significance

How likely a result (or a change) between 2 parties is, with the assumption that there is no difference

Directionality problem (in correlation)

The problem of not knowing which variable is causing the other

Third variable problem (in correlation)

When an outside variable that was not accounted for is responsible for the two relationships that were being studied

Placebo

Fake treatments that have no effect

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Single-blind study

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Double-blind study

An experimental procedure in which both the researcher and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo

Experimenter bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence their results to confirm their own belief

Social desirability bias

Bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, favor or remember information that aligns with our current beliefs

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.