genetics and evolution

Evolution

a change in gene frequencies in a population between generations, individuals do not evolve;Gene Flow

includes immigration and emigration;Immigration

Increase in genetic variation due to individuals entering a population.;Emigration

Genetic Drift: occurred with isolation and interbreeding

Bottleneck (isolation): Typhoon wiped out the population to 20 which isolated gene variations.;Genotype

The genetic code of an organism, represented by its DNA.

Genotype consists of the alleles that the organism inherits from its parents (allele pp, Pp, PP).;Phenotype

Sum of all physical and behavioral traits of an organism, influenced by its genotype.

Phenotype of a PP or Pp or pp is the way it appears (purple, curly, etc).;DNA

Long macromolecule containing genetic material, found in the nucleus of cells.;Gene

Differences: Frog has more blood vessels, thicker skin, leathery, green and light on top. Pig has hair, soft skin.

Reasons: Frog's tough belly due to close proximity to the floor, pig on all fours, pig needs to stay warm.;Structure and Function of Frog and Fetal Pig's Respiratory System

Similarities: Both internal, have lungs, expand and contract for oxygen delivery.

Differences: Frogs lack a trachea and diaphragm, have smaller lungs due to skin breathing. Pig's lungs are bigger for more oxygen needs.

Reasons: Frog's lungs closer to mouth, no need for windpipe or diaphragm.;Structure and Function of Frog and Fetal Pig's Hearts

Similarities: Both have hearts, two atriums, double loop circulation.

Differences: Pigs have 4 chambers, frogs have 3. Frog has a smaller heart, pig has a bigger heart.

Reasons: Pigs have faster metabolism, frogs need less oxygen, heart function differs.;Structure and Function of Frog and Fetal Pig's Digestive Systems

Similarities: Both break down food, have Intestine and Stomach.

Differences: Frog has a smaller intestine and bigger stomach, carnivore. Pig has a bigger intestine and smaller stomach, herbivore.

Reasons: Frog's shorter intestine due to carnivorous diet, pig's bigger stomach for cellulose digestion.;Structure and Function of Frog and Fetal Pig's Reproductive Systems

Similarities: Both have ovaries, oviduct.

Differences: Frogs lay eggs, pigs have live birth. Pig has uterus, frogs don't.

Reasons: Frogs have external fertilization, pigs have internal. Pigs have uterus due to mammalian reproduction.;Cladograms

Hypothesize evolutionary relationships based on traits, time runs bottom left to top right.;What is the main function of DNA?

Holds genetic material and codes for protein;What is the structure of DNA?

DNA double helix, two strands

DNA has a shape like a twisted ladder;What are the complementary base pairs in DNA replication?

Adenine pairs with Thymine

Cytosine pairs with Guanine;Why is complementary base pairing important in DNA replication?

It is important for replication accuracy and error correction;What types of bonds are involved in complementary base pairing? Which is stronger, which weaker?

CovalentBonds: stronger bonds, where the bases, phosphate, and sugar meet.;What are the steps involved in DNA replication?

1. Closed DNA strand is unzipped by the helicase (enzyme/protein) and hydrogen bonds are broken

2. Strands are primed and prepared for replication, then the first few nucleotides are added by primer

3. The polymerase

(enzyme/protein) pulls free floating nucleotides (around the nucleus) and builds up the new strand;DNA Extraction Lab Steps

1. Smush strawberry to separate cells from one another.

2. Soap broke membrane and broke open nucleus revealing the DNA.

3. Salt made the DNA clump together

4. Alcohol separated the DNA from the strawberry because DNA is less dense so it floated and the strawberry sank.;Sex Chromosomes

Sex chromosomes (1 pair of chromosomes OR 2 chromosomes)

Females have two X chromosomes (XX)

Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY);Chromosomes and where they are found?

Chromosomes are found inside the nucleus of the cell and they look like X's. They are found in every cell of the body.

We have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs:;Homologous chromosomes

Pairs of chromosomes, one from each biological parent, same genes in the same location, mirror images of each other;Meiosis

Example: heterozygous plants and dominant homozygous plants are indistinguishable in phenotype. Both plants PP and Pp for flower color have purple flowers.;Incomplete dominance

Multiple alleles influence phenotype, resulting in an intermediate trait

Example: Both allele for red flowers (R) and the allele for white flowers (r) influence the phenotype. When they self pollinate red-flowering plants produce only red-flowering offspring and white-flowering plants only produce white-flowering offspring. But when they are crossed, they will have pink flowers and 100% of the offspring would have pink flowers (Rr).;Codominance

Both alleles expressed in heterozygotes without blending

Example: the genes for both white coat (R') and red coat (R) color are expressed. The color of the coat would be (RR') and have both will be expressed.;X-linked genes

Genes found on the X chromosome, affecting males more due to having only one X chromosome;Y-linked genes

• concentration/gel density

• voltage

• electrical magnetic source.;Force in Gel Electrophoresis

Electrical current draws negatively charged DNA molecules towards the positive side.;Genotype and Phenotype

Two lines= heterozygous, one dominant, one recessive

One line = homozygous (dominant or recessive)

Dominant (FF): closer (top) line

Recessive (ff): farther (bottom) line;Nucleotides in Gel Electrophoresis

The number of nucleotides in a gene or allele directly influences the size of the DNA fragment produced during PCR amplification. This size determines the position of the band observed in gel electrophoresis results. Therefore, by analyzing the sizes of DNA fragments on the gel, researchers can infer the size of the gene or allele being studied, providing valuable information about genetic variations and mutations.;Explain how mutations relate to biodiversity, and if biodiversity is "gained", "lost" or "neither" when mutations occur.

Population with 32 have blue hair, total 197 people

32 x

—- = —--

197 100

3200/197 = x

x=16.2%;Describe fish features

aquatic vertebrates that are characterized by scales, fins and pharyngeal gills. There are 3 main groups: jawless, cartilaginous and bony. Ex. Lamprey, dogfish shark, perch;Describe amphibian features

The first fishes to be found in abundance in the fossil record were jawless. These are limited to eating small particles of food by filter-feeding and vacuum suction.

The evolution of jaws in fishes made it possible for them to eat plants and other animals and defend themselves by biting.;Significance of strength of skeleton in amphibians

Amphibians probably evolved from lobe-finned fishes. These organisms faced many challenges transitioning from water to land.

The first amphibians had strong limb bones and girdles for movement unsupported by water.

The ribs formed a cage that supports and protects the internal organs.

Developed lungs;Significane of eggs in reptiles

Reptiles evolved from amphibians when climatic changes caused destruction of amphibian habitat.

Reptilian eggs are surrounded by a shell and several membranes that create a protected environment for the embryo and allow it to survive in dry conditions and away from water

These "amniotic eggs" contain nutrient-rich yolk used by the embryo for food.;Significance of Internal Temperature Control in Birds and Mammals

Fish, amphibians and reptiles are ectothermic. They have an internal body temperature that varies with external (environmental conditions) due to a slow metabolism.

Birds and mammals are endothermic. They maintain a relatively high and constant internal body temperature that is regulated internally due to a fast metabolism.

This adaptation is very important for animals living in habitats where temperatures and seasons are variable.

Allow us to colonize in any climate, cold or hot;What are the two cladogram assumptions

The more similar the genes and physical traits of two species are, the more closely related they are.

The similarities were inherited from a most recent common ancestor (MRCA).;What is ventral?

belly;What is dorsal?

tail

end;What is anterior?

front

face