Unit 0: Psychological Science Practices - Research Methods and Data Interpretation

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key research methods, statistical reasoning, experimental terms, and scientific attitudes from Unit 0.

Scientific Attitude

An approach to scientific inquiry composed of three essential elements: curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Critical Thinking

Smarter thinking that feeds a scientific attitude by examining assumptions, appraising the source, discerning hidden biases, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions.

The rat is always right

A phrase in scientific inquiry emphasizing that facts are facts, and if an hypothesis is not supported by evidence, the scientific attitude requires accepting the truth rather than personal predictions.

Hindsight Bias

An error in recollection where individuals tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that they would have foreseen it.

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate research studies and methodologies prior to publication to ensure scientific accuracy and validity.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events, differing from a mere hunch.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiable

The capacity of a hypothesis or theory to be proven wrong or disproven by empirical evidence.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures or operations used in a research study to measure variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case Study

A non-experimental descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A non-experimental descriptive method involving observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without attempting to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A non-experimental research technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative sample.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-Report Bias

A form of measurement bias where participants provide inaccurate, selective, or distorted descriptions of their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure in research.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, used to visualize correlation.

Illusionary correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no real relationship exists, or a perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back or regress toward their average value.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe the effect on dependent variables, representing the only method capable of determining cause and effect.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment or one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment, serving as a baseline comparison for evaluating the effect of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thereby minimizing preexisting differences between groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are unaware of whether they have received the actual treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, where any effect on behavior is caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an unintended effect in an experiment.

Experimenter Bias

A process where a researcher's cognitive biases or expectations subtly influence the participants or data collection process in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome factor that is measured and may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is intended to measure.

Quantitative Research

Research that focuses on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data.

Qualitative Research

Research that collects and analyzes non-numerical data to understand concepts, subjective experiences, opinions, or meanings.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that human research participants must be informed of enough details about a study to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study given to participants, disclosing its true purpose and any deceptions used.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution of scores or data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a data distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, calculated by adding the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores fall above it and half fall below it.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a given score.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value, often pulled by extreme scores.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much individual scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of data, where approximately $68\text{\%}$ of cases fall within $1$ standard deviation of the mean.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow researchers to generalize or infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for combining and analyzing the results of multiple independent research studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement indicating how likely it is that an obtained research result occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude or strength of an experimental outcome or relationship between variables.