endocrine system patho

what is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands

endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream or tissues of the body while exocrine glands release enzymes though ducts to another organ within or even outside of the body

what is the main function of the endocrine system

to maintain homeostasis by fluid and electrolyte balance, temperature and metabolism, nutrition and eleimination, etc.

what are the major glands of the endocrine system

-pituitary posterior and anterior

-thyroid gland

-parathyroid gland

-adrenal gland

-hypothalamus

-gonads

hormones

act like chemical messengers in the body. they are made and created in one part of the body and sent to another part to act. for example insulin is a hormone made by beta cells in the pancreas

what is the overall process of how hormones work

most hormones are produced by endocrine glands and are released directly into the blood stream, they travel to their target cells, which only respond to their specific hormone acting like a lock and key. after action on target cells, the hormone is metabolized by the liver and exscreted by the kidneys

what is the difference between hormones, neurotransmitters, and neurohormones

neurotransmitters travel between neuorns primairly in the synaptic cleft, hormones travel through the blood stream, and neurohormones are released into the blood by neurons to affect distant target cells.

what does corticotrophin releasing hormone do

Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, playing a critical role in the body's stress response.

what does thyrotropin hormone do

Thyrotropin hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy levels, and overall growth.

what does gonadotrophin do

Gonadotrophin stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones and promote reproductive functions, including the development of eggs in ovaries and sperm in testes.

what does somatostatin do

Somatostatin inhibits the release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary and suppresses the secretion of other hormones, helping to regulate overall growth and metabolism.

what is the pituitary gland known as and why

The pituitary gland is known as the "master gland" because it controls the activity of other endocrine glands and regulates various bodily functions by releasing hormones.

thyroid stimulating hormone

released by the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

adrenocortotrophin

released by the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol and other hormones, playing a key role in the body's response to stress.

prolactin hormone

produced by the anterior pituitary gland, acts on the mammary to produce breast milk, also called the lactogenic hormone

growth hormone

produced by the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the growth of bones and muscles by acting on muscle and bone to promote protein synthesis

follicle stimulating hormone

produced by the anterior pituitary gland, it stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in females and the production of sperm in males, playing a crucial role in reproductive health.

what is ovarian follicle in women

a tiny, fluid-filled sac inside the ovary that holds an immature egg (oocyte) and helps it grow the cells surrounding the follicle feed and protect the egg as it grows, follicles also make sex hormones like estrogen, which control the menstrual cycle and help prepare the body for pregnancy, and the release of the egg during ovulation.

luteinizing hormone

produced by the anterior pituitary gland, it triggers ovulation in females as well as the production of estrogen and progesterone and stimulates the production of testosterone in males, playing a key role in reproductive function.

what is estrogen in simple terms

a hormone that regulates the female reproductive system, influencing menstrual cycles, pregnancy, and secondary sexual characteristics.

what is progesterone

a hormone involved in regulating the menstrual cycle, maintaining pregnancy, and preparing the body for conception.

ADH

stimulates the kidney tubules in the nephrons to reabsorb water. caffeine and alcohol are diuretics which cause excessive urination and can lead to dehydration. ADH is released when there is low blood volume. ADH makes us retain water by the reducing the amount of urine production

oxytocin

1) stimulates smooth muscle of the uterus to contract during childbirth

2) sometimes known as the love hormone, released during orgasm, hugs, and breastfeeding

3) stimulates mammary glands to release breast milk

4) impacts bonding behavior

5) females have higher levels then male s

what are some hyperpituitrims disorders

1) giantism

2) acromegaly

3) Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)

4) Hyperprolactinemia

5) cushing disease

6) hyperthyroidism

what is the thyroid primarily associated with

controls metabolism and helps lower calcium levels. calcotnin is secreted by the thyroid when serum calcium levels are too high and calcium needs to decrease in the body

how does calcitonin decrease calcium levels in the serum

Calcitonin decreases serum calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity in bones, reducing calcium release, and promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys.

what 3 hormones does the thyroid produce and what do they do

The thyroid produces thyroxine (T4), which regulates metabolism; triiodothyronine (T3), which increases metabolic rate and energy production; and calcitonin, which lowers serum calcium levels.

myxedema coma

is a severe form of hypothyroidism that can lead to decreased mental status, hypothermia, and metabolic disturbances. It is considered a medical emergency requiring prompt treatment. It is triggered by discontinuing thyroid medications and other stressors such as surgery or infection.

what are some manifestations of myxedema coma

hypothermia, life threatening low blood pressure or cariogenic shock, bradycardia, respiratory depression, edema all over the body, water retention leads to low sodium levels, cerebral edeam which leads to decreased LOC and coma, etc.

thrytotoxicosis

complication of hyperthyroidism, most likely to occur in a person with hyperthyroidism that experiences trauma, surgery, illness, or another severe stressor. may be caused by medications or food high in iodine. the client presents with a very high fever, tachycardia and heart failure, chest pain, shortness of breath, anxiety, decreased metal alertness, abdominal pain. if left untreated the mortality rate is 75%

what does iodine have to do with the thyroid

Iodine is an essential element required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, including thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). A deficiency in iodine can lead to hypothyroidism and the enlargement of the thyroid gland, known as a goiter.

where is the parathyroid located

4 areas located on the posterior surface of the thyroid and secretes parathyroid hormone

when is parathyroid hormone secreted

when serum calcium is low or when serum magnesium is low

how does PTH increases calcium levels

by drawing calcium out of the bones, by causing the kidneys to absorb more calcium, and having vitamin D promote calcium absorption in the GI tract

how does hypothyroidism cause anemia

Hypothyroidism can cause anemia due to decreased erythropoietin production, which is essential for red blood cell formation, as well as impaired iron metabolism and absorption.

why does excessive calcium cause metabolic acidosis

Excessive calcium can lead to metabolic acidosis by promoting renal tubular dysfunction, which impairs the kidneys' ability to excrete hydrogen ions, resulting in an accumulation of acidity in the blood.

why does hypercalcemia cause hypermagnesemia

Hypercalcemia can cause hypermagnesemia by increasing the gastrointestinal absorption of magnesium and decreasing renal excretion, leading to elevated magnesium levels in the body.

when the serum calcium is too high what does the body do

the thyroid releases calcitonin which causes the body to release calcium into the bones, this is done by the thyroid gland releasing calcitonin

when serum calcium is too low what does the body do

the parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone which pulls calcium from bones to be pulled into the bloodstream

explain the bodys negative feedback loop to me in simple terms

A negative feedback loop is a process where the body detects changes and activates mechanisms to reverse those changes, maintaining balance. For example, if hormone levels rise, the body signals to reduce their production. another example, if the body temperature is too high, the hypothalamus will trigger mechanisms like sweating to cool down.

explain the bodys positive feedback loop to me in simple terms

A positive feedback loop is a process that amplifies changes in the body, leading to an extreme response. For example, during childbirth, the release of oxytocin increases contractions, which further stimulates more oxytocin release until delivery occurs.

what are the islets of langerhans

The islets of Langerhans are clusters of pancreatic cells that produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon, regulating blood sugar levels in the body.

what are normal fasting serum glucose levels

70-99mg/dL

hyperglycemia

an excess amount of glucose in the blood. fasting levels over 110

metabolic syndrome

puts a person at high risk for developing type 2, heart disease, and stroke

what are the 3 P’s of diabetes mellitus

*not enough insulin too much sugar in the blood stream

1) polyuria-increased urine output

2) polydipsia'-increased thirst

3) polyphagia-increased hunger

hypoglycemia

Can kill you fast; the most common causes are a mismatch of insulin, food intake, and physical activity, alcohol abuse, and old, ineffective insulin medication. It often occurs overnight when the person cannot recognize the symptoms. early signs are hunger, anxious, shaky, etc. later signs ar ewhen it becomes a lifre threatneing emergency-glucose below 55 affects brainf function, glucose below 30 can result in death. symptoms look like drug or alcohol toxicity and may not be recognized until too late-confusion, abnormal behavior, blurred visionseizures or LOC-patients will need insuling injection or IV while those with short term symptoms will need to drink something high in sugar immediately

hyperglycemia

kills you slowly.

acute hyperglycemia

glucose above 180 starts to cause symptoms the patient is aware of-3 P’s, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, dry mouth. patient will need treatment but it is not life threatening. treatment is insulin to bring down blood glucose levels

metabolic acidosis

rapid breathing, fruity smelling breath, ketones in urine, high serum potassium, serum glucose over 250 mg/dL. increase hydrogen ions causes them to enter into the cell, causing potassium to exit the cell causes hyperkalemia

what is ketonemia

Presence of ketones in the blood, typically indicating the body is using fat for energy instead of carbohydrates, often seen in uncontrolled diabetes.

are ketones an acid

yes ketones ar ean acid cauing ketoacidosis-too many hydrogen ions in the blood stream and can lead to a dangerous drop in blood pH, potentially resulting in symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status.

what do insulin doses achieve and why is this important to monitor

insulin doses not only move glucose from the bloodstream into cells but also moves potassium from the blood stream into cells, small shifts in potassium can create big effects and even kill a person so it is crucial to monitor when giving a patient insulin

what are some complications of DM 1 and 2

1) hypertension

2) CV disease

3) diabetic retinopathy (blindness)

4) pregnancy complications

5) diabetic neuropathy

6) sexual dysfunction

7) increased susceptibility to infection

insulin antagonist

A substance that counteracts the effects of insulin, increasing blood glucose levels by inhibiting glucose uptake in cells and promoting gluconeogenesis in the liver.

what is the function of estrogen

1) enables brain function related to social behavior

2) in women it facilitates reproduction and menstruation, a lack of estrogen produces symptoms of menopause

what does estrogen do in men

Estrogen in men helps regulate libido, erectile function, and spermatogenesis. It also plays a role in bone health and may influence mood and cognitive functions.

what might too much or too little estrogen cause

too little estrogen might cause hair thinning, and acne. too much estrogen might cause breast cancer, uterine cancer, and depression

progesterone

plays a key role in menstrual cycle regulation and maintaining pregnancy. each month if pregnancy does not occur, a drop in progesterone occurs which triggers menstruation. progesterone can be found in the ovaries

prolactin

produced by the anterior pituitary gland-levels rise during pregnancy which cause breast enlargement and breat milk development

what other hormones does prolactin stimulate

follicle stimulating hormone and gonadotrophin hormone which decreases the likelihood of pregnancy while breast feeding

oxytocin

produced by the posterior pituitary gland is called the love hormone because it is the same hormone released during a hug or when you have an orgasm, facial and emotional recognition, trust, and mother-infant bonding, controls uterine contractions during labor, decreases bleeding postpartum, and is involved in breast milk production-as the baby sucks oxytocin is released for more breast milk

oxytocin in labor and delivery positive feedback loop

positive feedback loops occur when the stimulus increases the hormone and the hormone therefore increases the stimulus. head pressure being applied on the cervix causes the release of oxytocin, and strengthens uterine contractions during childbirth. oxytocin can be given in an IV to speed up child delivery

what is an anabolic steroid

a synthetic version of testosterone used to treat low testosterone in males, is commonly abused in high doses by athletes and body builders. can cause deep voice, facial hair, building muscle and losing fat, strengthens bones, breast enlargement, short height if taken before puberty, and balding. there is also a risk of tendon rupture, high cholesterol, coronary artery plaque, heart disease, liver disease, blood clots, and death. high levels shut down normal testosterone production so after stopping the drug, the testes are smaller, you have lower tesosterone, and infertility problems

what is androgen

Hormones that regulate male traits and reproductive activity, including testosterone. They are produced in the testes and adrenal glands, influencing muscle mass, fat distribution, and bone density. they also play a role in increased libido, facial and body hair growth, and blood cell development. can also cause aggression, acne, thinning hair,

what is the difference between the andrenal medualla and the adrenal cortex

The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines like adrenaline, while the adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone. These two regions have distinct functions and hormone profiles, playing crucial roles in the body's response to stress and regulation of metabolism.

what affect does adrenaline have on the body

Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, triggers the body's fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supplies. It dilates airways and redistributes blood to muscles, enhancing physical performance and alertness.

what does cortisol do

increases blood pressure, pulse and respiration, and blood sugar. low blood sugar causes the release of cortisol which causes the release of glycogen increasing glucose levels in the blood

what positve impacts does cortisol have on the body

1) increases energy, alertness, and muscle strength

2) decreases inflammatory response

3) improves breathing in persons with COPD and asthma

4) decreases nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy

what are some negative side effects of corticosteroids

decreases serotonin levels making you moody, decreases immune system ability to fight infection, makes you hungry and can lead to weight gain, increased gastric acid and GI bleeding, increases insomnia

what typically causes excessive aldosteorne

an adrenal tumor-excessive aldosterone causes excessive absorption of water and salt and causes potassium to be lost in the urine

addison crisis

occurs with severe weakness, low blood pressure, and shock because of low sodium and high potassium

how do you treat addison syndrome crisis

treat with IV or IM cortisol immediately then IV with sugar and salt to correct electrolyte imbalance, treat high potassium levels with IV calcium or magnesium and treat low blood pressure