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Faction [Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

A group of citizens, majority or minority, united by passion or interest harmful to others or the community.

Can factions be removed? [Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

No—removing them would either destroy liberty or require everyone to think alike, both impossible/unacceptable.

Main cause of faction [Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

Unequal distribution of property and natural differences in human opinions and interests.

Danger of faction in a pure democracy [Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

Majority can quickly unite, oppress the minority, and sacrifice justice; small democracies are unstable.

How does a republic control the effects of faction? [Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

By using elected representatives to refine public opinion and by extending over a large territory to prevent domination.

Why is a large republic better than a small one?[Federalist No. 10 – James Madison]

It offers more qualified leaders, makes corruption harder, and includes more diverse interests, preventing dominance.

Madison's final conclusion in Federalist No. 10

The Constitution's design—a large, representative republic—is the best safeguard against factions and ensures liberty.

De Tocqueville's finding about American special interest groups [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

Americans naturally form associations for nearly everything, acting without waiting for government.

Association [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

A group of individuals who unite around shared goals and commit to spreading them.

Three functions of an association [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

Unite people and channel efforts; strengthen influence through meetings and numbers; act politically by choosing delegates.

Why are there no conspiracies in America? [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

Because associations are open and legal, making secret societies unnecessary.

Why is the right to join an assosiation a natural right? [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

Humans naturally combine efforts to reach common goals; association is nearly as inalienable as liberty.

Difference between political stratum and apolitical stratum [Democracy in America – Alexis de Tocqueville]

Political stratum = small, informed, active citizens; apolitical stratum = majority, less informed, less active.

Power distribution in America according to Dahl

Power is dispersed among many groups (pluralism), not concentrated in a single elite.

Who is holding the political leader captive? [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Constituents—leaders must respond to voters or risk losing support.

Reciprocal relationships between leaders and constituents [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Leaders influence citizens' choices, but also must respond to their preferences.

Who constitutes the political stratum? [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Actively engaged citizens—politicians, activists, lobbyists, intellectuals, and involved voters.

Political qualities of the apolitical strata [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Disorganized, inconsistent beliefs, poorly informed, politically passive, choices shaped by habit or emotion.

Can anybody break into the political stratum? [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Yes—by voting, joining organizations, activism, or forming coalitions, especially through elections.

Why would a political elite deal with certain issues?[Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

For electoral payoff or to avoid backlash—not always pure civic duty.

What compromises Making of governmental decisions? [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Endless bargaining and compromise among small groups, not simple majority rule.

Core of political decision-making [Who Governs? – Robert Dahl]

Bargaining and pluralist competition, where active groups make their voices heard.