Untitled Flashcards Set

Producer of research

A person knowledgeable about research methods and how to measure accurately.

Consumer of research

An individual who reads about research with curiosity and a critical eye.

Empiricism

Answering psychological questions with direct, formal observations.

Theory

A set of statements that describe the general principles about how variables relate to one another.

Hypotheses

Predictions derived from theories.

Scientific norm: Universalism

Scientific claims are evaluated based on their merit with the same criteria for all scientists.

Scientific norm: Communality

Scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community.

Scientific norm: Disinterestedness

Scientists aim to discover the truth, not swayed by personal convictions or external factors.

Scientific norm: Organized skepticism

Questioning everything, including one's own theories and widely accepted ideas.

Basic research

Research aimed at enhancing the general body of knowledge without addressing specific practical problems.

Applied research

Research conducted with practical problems in mind, often in real-world contexts.

Translational research

Research that uses lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to health care and interventions.

Peer review cycle

Process where journal editors send papers to experts for evaluation before publication.

Comparison groups

Groups that enable comparison of what happens with and without the factor of interest.

Probabilistic research

Research findings that do not explain all cases all of the time.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut where things that come easily to mind influence thinking.

Present/present bias

The failure to consider appropriate comparison groups.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to only look at information that supports one's beliefs.

Bias blind spot

The inability to recognize one’s own biases.

Empirical journal articles

Articles that report the results of empirical research studies for the first time.

Review journal articles

Articles that summarize and integrate all the published studies in a specific research area.

Meta-analysis

Combines results from multiple studies to summarize the effect size of a relationship.

Variable

Anything that can vary, with at least two levels.

Constant

Something that has only one level in the study but could vary.

Measured variable

A variable whose levels are observed and recorded.

Manipulated variable

A variable controlled by a researcher, usually involving participant assignment to levels.

Claim

An argument someone is attempting to make.

Frequency claim

Describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable.

Association claim

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable.

Correlate

The relationship where one variable changes, the other variable tends to change too.

Validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision, indicating reasonable, accurate, and justifiable claims.

Construct validity

How well a conceptual variable is operationalized.

Generalizability

The extent to which study participants represent the intended population.

External validity

How well results of a study generalize to other people or contexts.

Statistical validity

The extent to which a study's statistical conclusions are precise and replicable.

Point estimate

Typically represented as a percentage that summarizes data.

Confidence interval

A range that aims to include the true population value a high proportion of the time.

Margin of error

Indicates how close a claim is to the true frequency.

Correlational studies

Support association claims by measuring two variables together.

Internal validity

A study's ability to eliminate alternative explanations for associations.

Criteria for establishing causation

Include temporal precedence, strong correlation, and the ability to rule out alternatives.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

A historical example of unethical research involving lack of informed consent and withholding treatment.

Milgram Obedience Studies

Research criticized for deception, lack of informed consent, and psychological harm to participants.

Belmont Report principle: Respect for persons

Individuals should freely decide whether to participate in research, with special protections for those with less autonomy.

Belmont Report principle: Beneficence

The principle of doing no harm during research.

Belmont Report principle: Justice

Ensuring a fair balance between who participates in research and who benefits from it.

APA principle: Fidelity and Responsibility

Promote trust and accountability in professional behavior.

APA principle: Integrity

Strive for accuracy, truthfulness, and honesty in research.

Deception in research

Can occur through omission (withholding details) or commission (actively lying to participants).

Debriefing

Discussing the nature of the deception with participants after the study.

Data fabrication

Inventing data instead of reporting what truly happened in a study.

Data falsification

Influencing study results by manipulating data or participant behavior.

Questionable research practices

Practices that can compromise the integrity of research findings.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

A board that protects human participants in research.

IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

Committee that safeguards animal subjects in research studies.

Self-report measure

Collects data by recording individuals' responses to questions about themselves.

Observational measure

Records observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors.

Physiological measure

Records biological data, such as brain activity or hormone levels.

Ordinal scale

A scale where numerals represent a ranked order.

Interval scale

A scale with equal intervals between levels but no true zero.

Ratio scale

A scale with equal intervals and a true zero value.

Reliability

The consistency of results from a measure.

Validity (in research)

Whether a measure accurately reflects what it is meant to measure.

Test-retest reliability

Consistency of scores when the same test is administered multiple times.

Interrater reliability

Consistency of scores regardless of who measures the variable.

Internal reliability

The consistency of responses across items in a test.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates how closely data points cluster around a line in a scatter plot.

Average inter-item correlation

The mean of correlations between items in a scale.

Cronbach's alpha

A measure of internal reliability that combines average inter-item correlation and number of items.

Face validity

A subjective assessment of whether the operationalization seems plausible.

Content validity

Captures all parts of a defined construct, requiring knowledge of its conceptual definition.

Criterion validity

Evaluates whether a measure corresponds with concrete behavioral outcomes related to its definition.

Physical trace measurements

Collecting data by observing and analyzing physical evidence left by past behaviors.