Bio Exam

Where are mangrove wetlands typically found?

They are found inland, in low land areas and can be found in fresh or brackish waters, lakes, ponds and along coastal areas. On the coast they are found in shallow seawater with low wave energy and on the leeward side of the island.

‘Mangrove mud tends to be anoxic’. Define anoxic

Anoxic means oxygen deficient

What causes the foul smell in the mangrove ecosystem?

Decomposition by anaerobic bacteria produces hydrogen sulfide which smells like rotten eggs causing the foul smell.

List and describe the importance of the Mangrove Wetlands

-Flood Control: After heavy rain, water drains into these low-lying areas, reducing the flooding in homes, farms, roads, and businesses.

-Coastal Protection: The roots and stems of the mangrove plant break waves helping to reduce inland erosion and flooding.

-Water Supply: Water drains into wetlands, replenishing groundwater supply.

-Nursery for Marine Species: These areas are rich in nutrients and the roots of red mangroves protect juveniles from larger predators.

-Habitat for Biodiversity- mangroves are home to a large variety of aquatic and terrestrial species.

-Recreation and Education- They are beautiful places to visit for relaxation and learning.

-Climate Control: The plants absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen through photosynthesis.

-Sediment Traps: The roots of plants trap sediment run-off preventing it from being washed off into the sea. This helps the coral reefs which need clear, sediment-free water to thrive.

-Products: Wetlands produce commercial products such as food, fuel, wood, and craft materials.

What are the four types of mangroves? (in order of closest to the shore to the farthest)

-Red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle)

-Black mangroves(Avicennia germinans)

-White mangroves(Laguncularia racemosa)

-Buttonwood(Conocarpus erectus)

List the special features of the red mangroves?

-Placement: The red mangrove is found in the water and along the shore.

-Roots: They have reddish-colored prop roots to stabilize the tree in soft mud. The prop roots are covered with breathing pores called lenticels. These are needed as the mud is anoxic. Roots also exude salt.

-Leaves: The leaves are large with pointed tips and are attached opposite to each other. These leaves have a thick waxy cuticle which reflects heat, reducing the rate of transpiration. The red mangrove accumulates salt in sacrificial leaves which turn yellow, discarding the salt as the leaves fall from the tree.

-Flowers: The flowers are yellow-cream. They bear four creamy yellow sepals and four white pointed petals.

-Fruit: The fruit which is called a propagule, germinates while attached to the parent plant.

List and describe the special features of the black mangrove.

-Placement: They are found on the shoreland landward of the red mangrove in between the low and high tide mark. They are the most salt-tolerant of the mangroves and can grow in hypersaline ponds. They have a dark ‘blackish’ bark.

-Roots: They have special roots called pneumatophores. These ‘breathing roots’ extend above the mud using lenticels which allow the air to diffuse into the root system.

-Leaves: The leaves are pale green and pointed. They are smaller than the leaves of the red mangroves. They also excrete salt from their leaves from their salt glands.

-Flowers and Fruit: The flowers how 4 petals that grow in clusters. They produce green teardrop-shaped fruits.

List and describe the special features of the white mangrove.

-Placements: The white mangrove is found further inland and is less salt tolerant.

-Roots: White mangroves also have pneumatophores but in fewer numbers than black mangroves.

-Leaves: They grow opposite to each other have rounded tips and are attached to the main stem by pinkish-colored petioles. There are two distinct nectaries found on the petioles at the base of the leaves which secrete sugar. The sugar secreted attracts insects for pollination and pest control

-Flowers and fruits: The flowers are tiny, white, and bell-shaped and they grow in clusters. They produce small green-ribbed fruit shaped like kernels of corn

List and describe the special features of buttonwood.

-Placement:While they are not true mangroves they are often found with mangroves at the edge of the wetland. They grow well above the high tide mark and therefore have no special root adaptations.

-Leaves: They grow alternate to each other and are green or silver in color. The silver comes from the hairs on the leaf which trap water vapor, increasing humidity, conserving water by reducing the transpiration rate

-Flowers and fruit: The flowers are very tiny and grow in ball-like clusters. The fruit, which are reddish, round, and button shaped give the tree its name.

What are some natural threats to the mangrove ecosystem?

-Hurricanes

-Invasive species

What are some man-made threats to the mangrove ecosystem?

-Deforestation

-Dredge and fill

-Pollution

-Climate Change

What is a coral reef?

A coral reef is a massive limestone structure built over many years by the skeletons of coral polyps that have been cemented together by calcium carbonate deposits.

Where are coral reefs typically found?

They are found in clear, shallow, warm, tropical waters(23-25°C) and generally no deeper than 100 meters.

What are the abiotic factors needed for a coral reef to form

-Warm water

-Shallow water

-High wave action

What are the four types of coral reefs?

-Fringing reefs: found in shallow waters close to and parallel to the shore.

-Barrier reefs: Run parallel to the coast but are located far offshore.

-Atolls: Found far from the shore. Have a circular or horseshoe shape and have a lagoon in the middle.

-Patch reefs: Smaller clumps/patches of reef.

Coral Anatomy.

Corals are invertebrates in the phylum, Cnidaria. Each organism is called a polyp. These polyps live in colonies to form coral structures that form coral reefs. They secrete a cup-like skeleton of calcium carbonate.

The polyp is transparent and has a central mouth surrounded by tentacles. The tentacles have stinging cells which are used to capture pretty and for protection.

How do corals reproduce ?

They reproduce both sexually by external fertilization and asexually by budding.

What are the two types of corals?

	Hard Coral	Soft Coral
Reef Building	yes	no
Secretes CaCO3	yes	no
Examples	-brain coral -elkhorn coral -finger coral -staghorn coral	-sea fans -sea plumes -sea whips

What type of relationship do coral reefs and zooxanthellae have? Explain fully

They have a symbiotic mutualistic relationship in which the coral provides the zooxanthellae with protection and carbon dioxide whereas the zooxanthellae provide oxygen,food and color.

What is coral bleaching?

When environmental conditions become intolerable the zooxanthellae leave the coral polyps which causes their color to leave them turning white. After the zooxanthellae are gone, coral will have a harder time getting nutrients which leads to the death of the coral.

What are some natural threats to the coral reef?

-Hurricanes

-Invasive species

What are some man-made threats to the coral reef?

-Oil spills

-Garbage

-Pollution

-Overfishing

-Costal development

-Dredging

What is the importance of the coral reef?

-Supports a large amount of biodiversity

-Provides fisheries and tourism resources helping the economy

-Provides food

-Provides recreational opportunities

-Reefs break waves protecting the coast from erosion and intense flooding

-Aids in the production of sand

-Aids in climate regulation as the zooxanthellae absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Where can seagrass meadows be found and why?

Seagrass meadows are found in shallow water as the grass requires light for photosynthesis.

What does seagrass require for growth?

They require warm, clear, shallow water for growth.

What are the three types of seagrass found in The Bahamas?

-Turtle grass: flat, ribbon like blades

-Shoal grass: flat, very thin blades

-Manatee grass: thin, cylindrical blades

How do seagrasses reproduce?

As they are flowering plants they reproduce sexually by producing flowers and asexually by rhizomes(horizontal underground plant stem capable of producing the shoot and root systems of a new plant.)

Why are seagrass meadows important?

-They act as a nursery area which act as a transition zone between the mangroves and coral reefs

-They filter sediment helping to maintain water clarity

-They are a food source for animals such as the green turtle and manatee and is a habitat for animals like sea urchins, marine algae, and a variety of fish

-The seagrass roots(rhizomes) hold sand in place reducing erosion from wave action.

Where can the rocky shore be found?

It can typically be found on the windward side of the island which is characterized by high wave action and strong breezes.

What type of rocks can be found on the rocky shore

The rocks found on the rocky shore are usually weathered and or eroded limestone which is made out of calcium carbonate or CaCO3.

What are the four zones of the rocky shore.(going from the ocean inland)

-Low Tide zone(Permanently wet zone): constantly underwater

-Intertidal Zone(Intermittently wet zone): covered and uncovered by the ebb and flow of the sea tides

-High Tide zone(Tide pool zone): seawater forms pools in depressions of the rock which are kept wet by rain and sea spray.

-Splash zone(Spray zone): above the high tide line and only sea spray reaches this zone.

What are some environmental conditions of the Rocky Shore

-Intense heat/sunlight

-Strong wave action

-Desiccation(drying out)

-Predation

-High salinity

-Extreme variation of oxygen availability

-Vulnerability to predators

What are some organisms found on the rocky shore?

Zones	Animals	Plants
Splash	Limpet, crab, barnacle, periwinkle, nerties	Green seaweed
High Tide	Limpet, crab, barnacles	Green and brown seaweed
Intertidal	Limpet, crab	Brown seaweed
Low Tide	Limpet, crab, sea urchins, Caribbean topshells.	Red and brown seaweed.

How have animals adapted to deal with intense heat and desiccation on the rocky shore?

-Organisms with shells can hide inside their shells to avoid heat. These shells are usually brightly colored which reflects sunlight.

-Water can also be stored inside of the shell in case of a severe low tide

-Sea anemones secret a mucus to slow down the desiccation process.

How have animals adapted to deal with high wave action on the rocky shore?

-Shells of organisms can withstand the pressure/force of the waves.

-Animals like the sea anemone and chiton have suction cups which hold then in place during wave action and shifting tides.

-Other shelled animals like conch and whelks utilize their muscular foot to hold and maneuver onto the rocks

How have animals adapted to deal with predation on the rocky shore?

-Some organisms avoid predators with the use of camouflage.

Why is the rocky shore important?

-It prevents inland erosion as the waves are broken on the rocks.

-It is a source of food.

-It can be used for recreation.

-It is extremely biodiverse.

What are some threats to the rocky shore?

-Coastal development

-Climate Change

-Pollution

-Removal of Organisms

-Overharvesting of creatures for food.

Where can the sandy shores ecosystem be found?

It is usually found on the leeward side of the island which has low wave action,gentle breezes, sand deposits, and the shifting of sand substrate.

What are some characteristics of the sandy shore?

The sandy shore has infertile soil and is often windy,dry and salty. There are no large rocks,algae or tidal pools.

What is another name for the sandy shore

The beach

How are sandy shores formed?

Through the deposition of sand and other particles from the sea.

What are two types of sandy shores?

-Sheltered bays: have gently sloping beaches of fine sand

-Exposed beaches: are steep and have coarse sand

Name three beaches in the Bahamas

-Cabbage Beach

-Goodman’s Bay

-Montague Beach

Where can sand originate from?

-Weathered and eroded rocks

-Small shell fragments

-Small coral fragments

-Feces of certain fishes(Parrot Fish)

What are the zones of the sandy shores?(from the ocean going inward)

-Low tide zone

-High tide zone

-Pioneer zone

-Fixed dune zone

-Seagrape zone

-Woodland zone

How does the environment of the sandy shores change as you move inland?

-The effect of the wave action is reduced

- The sand becomes more dry

-The sand becomes more stable with additions of humus.

-The salinity decreases

-The drying effect of the wind is reduced

Describe the pioneer zone of the sandy shore.

-It begins above the high tide mark, is dry, salty, and is constantly moved by the wind.

-There is little to no vegetation and the plants that do live here are salt resistant, have underground stems called rhizomes, and are usually low growing vines with waxy leaves for holding water

-The animals that live here burrow under the sand where it is cooler. Some organisms that live here are:

• sea worm

• sand fleas

• sand crabs

Describe the fixed dune zone of the sandy shore.

- It is found next to the pioneer zone. The sand is more stable and vegetation is much closer. The sand builds up into little dunes around the plants with the roots of plants holding the sand into place.

-There is more plant growth due to the help of humus which helps the sand to hold more water although the sand is still relatively dry and infertile. Some plants in this zone are:

• sea oats

• grass

• gale of wind

• spider lilies

Describe the Seagrape zone of the sandy shore.

-This zone is higher up on the shore. The soil there contains less salt and has more humus and is damper than the fixed dune zone.

-Vegetation is thicker and more varied with the most common plant is the sea grape tree as it has a deep root system and tough leaves. It provides protection for other plants.

Describe the scrub woodland zone of the sandy shore.

It is the most inland zone and it resembles a broadleaf coppice area. The sand here is stable and still fairly salty.

-The plants that grow here include:

• Cacti

• Thorny bush

• Coco-plum

• Top palm

• Sea grapes

What are some challenges that organisms on the sand beach face?

-Very dry soil: Soil dries out quickly after rain

-High salinity soil: due to the evaporation of seawater that leaves salt behind

-Winds: blowing from the sea that carry salt spray away up the seashore and also has a strong, drying effect on the plants and soil

-Wave action: causes the sand to be constantly shifted.

What are some adaptations that plants on the sandy beach have?

-Plants have long branching roots that hold substrate which absorb maximum fresh water.

-Green plants have flexible stems to withstand breezes

-Plants are zerophytes and are adapted to conserve water and absorb large quantities of water.

-Plants are salt-tolerant

The majority of the organisms found there are plants.

-Sea grape trees, Sea cabbage, casuarina, and some types of vines.

-To overcome the hot and salty environment some plants have waxy leaves to conserve water by reducing transpiration

-Some plants maintain the sandy shore by holding the sand together.

What are some adaptations that animals on the sandy beach have?

-Organisms burrow into the sand to combat the high heat and protect themselves from predators

-Most are filter feeders

-Shelled animals have smooth or spiral shells for easier burrowing and light-colored shells to reflect the sun.

-Many animals use camouflage to protect themselves from predators.

-Some animals that live on the sandy shore are crabs and sea urchins.

What are the importance of sandy shores?

-Recreation: Bahamians enjoy water activities

-Economy: tourists spend time on the beach.

-Prevents erosion: natural vegetation prevents beach erosion

-Biodiversity:The sandy shores provides a habitat for a variety of ecosystem and is a nesting and foraging ground for shore birds.

-Commerical: Used for launching boats for fishing and pleasure.

-Provision of jobs: Persons like lifeguards.

What are some threats to the sandy shores?

-Pollution

-Construction

-Dredging

-Sand mining

-Hurricanes

-Climate Change

-Damaging coral reefs

-Invasive species

-Illegal fishing practices

What are the four types of Bahamian forests?

-Pine forests

-Broadleaf coppice(Whiteland and Blackland)

-Drought Resistant Woodlands

Describe each forest type.

Ecosystem	Substrate	Water Availability/Type	Wind Exposure
Pine Forests	Rocky soil: shallow porous and nutrient-rich	Rainfall of 60”/year: fresh ground water reserves	Inland breezes
Broadleaf Coppice	Black-loamy soil White-rocky soil	Rainfall of 30”/year: some fresh ground water, some brackish	Balck- no wind White-salty wind (closer to shoreline)
Woodlands	Salt-and-pepper soil (sand and humus mix)	Rainfall deficient: saline lagoons	Salty wind (closer to shoreline)

Where can the pine forest be found?

They are found in the northern Bahamas on islands such as Andros, Abaco, Grand Bahama, and New Providence

Name some inhabitants of the pine forest ecosystem

Flora	Adaptation	Fauna	Adaptation
Caribbean Pine	Multinodal shoots allow it to grow when its raining and stop growing in times of drought. The roots anchor in the rock	Abaco Bahama Parrot	Nest in holes in the limeston; can camoflauge
Southern Bracken Fern		Bahama Woodstar Humming bird	Nest in short scrubby vegetation
Silver Thatch Palm	Can grow in shade and sun	Cuban Emerald Humming bird	Can hover mid flight and has long lounge and curved beak to extract nectar
Poison wood	Can grow in rocky soil	Pine Warbler	Likes resting in pine trees eating seeds
Gumelemi	Can grow in rocky soil	Bahamian Boa Constrictor	Can change color to camouflage with the ground for easy access to prey
Five Fingers	Highly tolerant to alkaline chalky soil; drought resistant	Andros Rock Iguana	Gets all the water they need from their diet
		Bahamian Green Anole	Camoflauge well on the leaves.

Why is it necessary for there to be fires in the pine forest?

It is needed as the fires destroy the low-growing plant life and hardwood trees which clears space for caribbean pine seeds to take root.

What are two ways fires in the pine forest can start?

The fires can either be started and managed by humans or a lighting strike can spark a fire using the fallen leaves and pine needles as fuel.

Why are mature caribbean pines not affected by the fires

They are not affected as they have a resistant bark to insulate them and high open branches to allow heat to disperse

What would happen if these natural fires did not happen in the absence of naturally occurring fires in the pine forest?

-There would be a deficit of pine trees as they would not be able to take root due the the copious amounts of debris on the forest floor

-If the fuel becomes to copious, a managed fire would destroy the forest.

What is the importance of the pine forest ecosystem?

-Commercial: Due to its quick growth it can produce mass amounts of good quality wood which has a bark rich in turpentines and resin

-Recreational: Hunters use the pine forest to enjoy their sport as well as birdwatchers.

-Habitat: There is a great deal of biodiversity in the PIne Forest with many organisms living within the forests.

-Ecological: The forest helps to protect the water table by helping to store water and absorbing minerals and nutrients to enhance the water quality.

What are some natural threats to the pine forest?

-Hurricanes

-Invasive species(racoon, wild hog, and feral cat)

What are some Human threats to the pine forest?

-Wildfires

-Development leads to the introduction of invasive plant species

-Neglected cats move into the pine forest becoming feral preying on the native species

-Agricultural encroachment introduces invasive plants.

Name the national parks which protect the pine forest

-Grand Bahama: Lucayan National Park; Rand National Center

-Abaco: Abaco National Park

-Andros: Central Andros National Park

What are the two types of coppice in The Bahamas?

-Whiteland

-Blackland

Where is the blackland coppice found

On the interior of the island where the soil is black humus and tress are thick and close together providing shady areas.

Where is the whiteland coppice found

Along the coastline where the soil often contains more lime and rock and the species are exposed to salt sea spray.

What are some organisms that can be found in the Whiteland Coppice Ecosystem

Flora	Adaptation	Fauna	Adaptation
Brasiletto	Salt tolerant, wind tolerant, small leaves that reduce surface area	Land Crab(GreatWhite Land Crab; Black Crab)	Can dig down to the water table to keep their gills moist while in their inland burrows
Acacia	Tolerates calcareous sand soil. Only found in The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos	Bat moths	Can hear bat sonar and emits clicks to jam it and avoid predation
Seagrape	Salt and wind tolerant. Thick cuticle to prevent water loss
Balsam	Tolerates calcareous sand salts and is salt tolerant.
Cacti	Salt and wind tolerant. The dildo cactus incorporates Calcium Carbonate into its tissues. They can grow very tall

What are some organisms that can be found in the Black land Coppice Ecosystem?

Flora	Adaptation	Fauna	Adaptation
Stoppers	Hardy, salt, and shade-tolerant plants which can exist in any soil type	Bahamian Boa Constrictor	Can camouflage with the ground for easier hunting of prey(lizards, rodents, insects.
Pigeon Plum	Can survive in both sunny and shady conditions	Great Lizard Cuckoo	Have special features for capturing and eating lizards.
Strong back	Tolerates alkaline soil and can survive in nutrient-poor soil and salty winds	White Crowned Pigeon	Nests in mangroves and feed in the forest. They eat poisonwood fruit.
Satinleaf	Tolerates alkaline soil and salty winds	Key West Quail Dove	Coloring camouflages as it forages on the forest floor for poisonwood fruit

What is the importance of the coppice forests?

-Commercial: The hardwood in the coppice provides timber for use and export.

-Medicinal: Provides many plant species used for bush medicine

-Habitats: Many wildlife species live in these forests

-Ecological: The forest helps to protect the water table by helping to store water and absorbing minerals and nutrients to enhance the water quality.

What are some Human threats to the coppice?

-Wildfires

-Population related development ;leads to the tearing down of the forests.

What are some organisms found in the drought resistant woodlands?

Flora	Adaptation	Fauna	Adaptation
Buccaneer Palm	Salt and wind tolerant and has a waxy barrier to prevent water loss	Bahamian Hutia	A critically endangered species due to cats and rats. They get all of their needed water from the leaves they eat.
Wild Lime	Drought resistant and has small leaves	Funnel Eared Bat	Small and agile to help with flying in the dense understory to catch insects.
Poison Bush	Succulent stems and spiny leaves	Bahamas Yellow Throat	Nest low to the ground
Moujeen Tea	Small leaves, drought-tolerant	West Indian Flamingo	They do not live in the forests but in the saline lagoons within them. Have webbed feet and special beaks to help them filter food out of the mud
		West Indian Rock Igunana	Obtain water from the vegetation in their diet.

What is the importance of the drought-resistant woodlands?

-Habitat: Much of the endemic species live here.

What are natural threats to the woodlands?

-Invasive species like feral cats and rats.

What are human threats to the woodlands?

-Wildfires

-Population related development may cause the clearing of the woodland.

-Capturing of iguanas for illegal pet trade.

What is the scientific name of the Nassau Grouper?

Epinephelus straitus

Where can the Nassau Grouper be found?

They can usually be found in caves, crevices and cracks of the reef.

What are the groupers natural prey?

-Shrimp

-Spider Crab

-Spiny Lobster

-Octopus

-Reef fish

What are the grouper’s natural predators?

-Caribbean Reef Shark

-Barracuda

When do Nassau groupers spawn?

They spawn around the full moon during late December or early January after the water cools down.

What are the phases of spawning aggregations of the nassau grouper?

1. Normal phase

2. Bicolor phase

3. Dark phase

4. White Belly phase

What are some threats to the population of nassau groupers?

Habitat destruction

Overfishing

What are some fishing regulations for the grouper?

The closed season is December to February

To keep the grouper it must be at least 3 pounds.

What are some suggestions for conservation of the grouper?

-Dont Catch Juveniles

-Do not fish during the closed season or during spawning aggregations.

What is the scientific name of the queen conch?

Strombus gigas

Lobatas gigas

Aliger gigas

Where is the queen conch usually found?

Seagrass beds

What are the conch’s natural prey?

they are herbavores eating plants and algae

What are the conchs natural predators?

-Loggerhead Sea Turtle

-Spotted Eagle Ray

-Nurse Shark

-Spiny Lobster

What are the threats to the population of conch?

-Overharvesting

-Harvesting of juveniles

-Unregulated fishing

-Loss of habiat

What is the economic importance of conch?

-Jobs

-Food

-Ecotourism

-Jewlery

What are some fishing regulations regarding the conch?

-They must have a well formed lip

What is the anatomy of the queen conch?

How does the conch move?

They move by using a muscular foot.

Which structure creates the shell of the conch?

The mantle

What is the scientific name of the spiny lobster?

Panulirus ar

Where can the spiny lobster be found?

The juveniles can be found in mangrove grass beds

The adults can be found in coral reefs